Ethics Matters Managing Ethical Issues - 1843 Words

Ethics Matters : Managing Ethical issues in Higher Education Foram A. Patel, Assistant Professor, Sardar Valllabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, Vasad, Gujarat. Abstract: An institution that is consciously and deliberately ethically aware will play a valuable role in pursuing wider community and societal aims. Our staff and students should be enabled to handle the range of ethical dilemmas they will face in an increasingly multicultural society with global dimensions. It is necessary to make people aware of how valuable the ethics are, irrespective of the particular professional fields. Higher education should be regarded as an inherently valuable activity that sets out to benefit society. The relationships between the†¦show more content†¦In addition, the Nolan Committee s First Report on Standards in Public Life sets out seven principles that â€Å"apply to all aspects of public life†. These are selflessness, integrity, objectivity, accountability, openness, honesty and leadership. Maintaining high ethical standards is made explicit, or at least implicit, in the aims and objectives of most institutions. But HEIs still need to ensure that these aims are put into practice in the day to day running of the institution. Ethical issues arise in a wide range of situations, including those relating to how an institution treats it employees, students and other groups. The relationships between the organization and its funders and commercial partners provide scope for conflicts of interest and other ethical dilemmas. Marketing practices and admissions procedures may raise questions about honesty and fairness, while upholding academic freedom can have both legal and ethical consequences. Ethical issues range from plagiarism to public interest disclosure and from race equality to confidentiality of information. While legislation may dictate how to approach some situations, this will not always be the case. Neither should legislation drive an institution’s approach to ethical issues. It is up to individual institutions to determine what is and is not acceptable behaviorShow MoreRelatedBenefits of Managing Ethics in Workplace1141 Words   |  5 Pages10 Benefits of Managing Ethics in the Workplace Many people are used to reading or hearing of the moral benefits of attention to business ethics. However, there are other types of benefits, as well. The following list describes various types of benefits from managing ethics in the workplace. 1. Attention to business ethics has substantially improved society. A matter of decades ago, children in our country worked 16-hour days. Workers’ limbs were torn off and disabled workers were condemnedRead MoreThe Ethics Of Ethics Audit1486 Words   |  6 PagesEthics audit can be used in different fields to analyze ethical risks in organizations. 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Comparing Maupassants Necklace and Chekovs Vanka Essay

Narrators and Sympathy in Maupassants Necklace and Chekovs Vanka In Guy de The Necklace and Anton Chekovs Vanka, the narrators attitudes are unsympathetic toward the protagonists Mathilde and Vanka. However, where the narrator of The Necklace feels outright hostility toward Mathilde, the narrator of Vanka voices his opinion more passively by pointing out the flaws in Vankas wishful thinking. In The Necklace, the narrators unsympathetic feelings toward Mathilde are made evident in the first paragraph when he states, she had no dowry, no expectations, no means of being known, understood, loved, wedded by an rich and distinguished man; and she let herself be married to a little clerk at the Ministry of Public†¦show more content†¦Eel is beaten several times a day for various reasons, presumably by Vankas grandfather; therefore, if Vanka should live with him, he would probably be beaten as well (47). In fact, Vanka tells his grandfather that he can thrash [him] like Sidors goat if he misbehaves or does something wrong (48). The narrator of The Necklace shows that Mathilde is a shallow person due to her insistence that she would not go to the ball without a new dress, and that she would only wear jewels, never flowers, although they were in fashion (67-68). Mathilde appears to be more concerned with how everybody thinks she looks, than how they actually think of her as a person. Mathilde furthers this impression when she and Loisle are leaving the dance and she would rather be in the cold than have the other ladies see them in their modest wraps of common life (69). However, the narrator of Vanka further portrays Vanka as a sympathetic, but naive, character. In his letter, Vanka writes about how he is beaten several times a day and frequently goes hungry because as for tea, or soup, the master and mistress gobble it all up themselves (48). He would even run away to the village, but [he has] no boots even though he works for a shoemaker (48). The fact that Vanka writes to his grandfather in secret with an old pen he had salvaged further shows how scared of his master he is in that he hides his actions for fear of receiving

The Black Power Movement Free Essays

The Black Power Movement During and after the days of Jim Crow, blacks in the United States were economically and socially oppressed. Blacks still faced lower wages than whites, segregation of public amenities and racial discrimination. At this time many groups were created to challenge these injusticces. We will write a custom essay sample on The Black Power Movement or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Black Power Movement and the Civil Rights movement were similar because they both fought for equal rights and equal treatment for African Americans. However, they sought to achieve different goals and implemented different forms of action to achieve change. The Civil Rights Movement fought for desegregation and believed in non-violence, while the Black Power Movement rejected integration for racial seperation (Jefferies, 2006). In this essay, I am going to further discuss the tactics used by the Black Power Movement to gain change, and the accomplishements they achieved. Emerging after the civil rights movement of the 1950’s, the Black Power Movement was arguably one of the most influential and controversial movements of the 20th century. â€Å"Black Power† as a political idea originated in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committe (SNCC) n the mid 1960’s (Jeffereies, 2006). At this time a leader emerged by the name of Stokley Carmichael. Upon gaining leadership, Carmichael ejected white members and believed that the only way to bring about change for blacks was to have an all black union. Stokleley Carmichael believed that Black Power would instill a fear in whites and love in blacks ( Carmichael, 1967). In 1966, Huey New ton and Bobby Seale formed the Black Panther Party for Self Defense (BPP) in Oakland California. By the late 1960’s, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee SNCC) and the Black Panther Party for Self Defense began to gain momentum. Martin Luther King Jr imitated Ghandi and his use of non-violebnce to gain India independence from Great Britain. Because of the Civil Rights Momvement, in 1964 the Civil Rights Act was passed and a year later the Voting Rights Act was passed, ending segregation and ultimately gave blacks the right to vote (Muse,1968). However, non-violent protestors were being beaten, cut with razors and knives, hot cigarettes and cigars were burnt into their arms and aces, they were spat upon and kicked to the floor, policemen locked them up by the thousands into cramped unsanitary jails (Muse,1968). Even with the obvious progress, discrimination could not be eliminated. Many members of the SNCC grew tired of the non-violent approach used by King and other groups within the Civil Rights Organization. Increasing members of the SNCC had come to reject the moderate path of cooperation, integration and assimilation of their elders (Ogbar,2005). Divisions grew betweeen the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Panther Movement. The eaders of the Black Power Movement argued that assimilation or integration robs blacks of their identity and dignity (Algernon, 2003). Malcom X, a member of the nation of Islam, believed that Africans historically fought to protect their lands, cultures and freedoms from European Colonists, and that to seek to integrate into a society that has stolen one’s people and their wealth is an act of treason (Algernon, 2003). As a result, aggressively more radical voices came foward to challenge racial discrimination. Black Power advocates began to insist the Blacks carry guns and receive ilitary training in order to protect themselves. Members of the Panthers openly carried weapons and made death threats towards police officers. The Black Panthers sought to oppose police brutality in African American neighborhoods. Police Officers were frequently followed by armed Black Panthers The Black Panthers staged violent protests which often resulted in the death of Panthers and Police officers. From 1967 to 1969, nine police officers were killed and 56 were wounded in confrontations with the panthers (Marine, 1969 How to cite The Black Power Movement, Papers

Employee Motivation and Retention Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Employee Motivation and Retention. Answer: Introduction Employee motivation and retention is one of the critical aspects of the human resource that must be considered for the effectiveness of workers. It entails putting in place strategies that are likely to improve the worker's desire and morale to work for the company. The strategies also help the employees to increase their desire and willingness to continue working for the company. Failure to consider the motivation and retention strategy makes the company lose the maximum productivity of the workers. Besides, it makes it difficult for organizations to retain the best skill and talent in the market. This is critical and helps the organizations to gain a competitive advantage over other players in the industry (Srivastava Shailesh, 2008). Currently, most companies are making efforts to adopt the best strategies that motivate and retain the employees. There are various approaches that have been used to motivate the employees as the way to yield the best out of the available labour. The strategies revolve around their remuneration to ensure that they are well compensated and improved communication system to reduce the misunderstandings that may arise from the communication discordance due to a poor method of communication. Besides, companies are employing other strategies such training and performance appraisal system. These approaches are essential in promoting the motivation of the employees and their retention to work for the organization for a longer period (Khanna, 2008). It is vital for organizations to understand the value that comes out of the motivated workers. Some organizations fail when they view motivation strategies as the imposed unnecessary cost to the organization. Motivation strategies are not necessarily expensive, and thus, all organizations need to embrace it. In this case study, Microsoft Corporation had a good history of good relations with the employees, however, at one point the company introduced cost-cutting measures which made radical changes to the employee motivation and retention activities that had been in place for the previous years. The changes brought about many issues regarding the employee motivation. This necessitated a later human resource transformation to improve the employee motivation and retention. The Microsoft Corporation Microsoft Corporation (Microsoft) is a technology company that was formed in 1975 by William Gates and Paul Allen. The company has grown over time and is now multinational serving clients from in almost all countries of the world. During this year, the company developed the first programming language called Altair Basic which was an improvement of BASIC programming language. The language got familiarity over time and later became a standard programming language used in almost all the computers on the planet. Later in 1977, Microsoft embarked on selling FORTRAN and 1978, it sold COBOL. In the same year, 1978, the company got a chance to develop a version of BASIC for the 8086 processor after the Intel Corporation came up with a new 16-bit microprocessor (Foley, 2008). Microsoft got a significant breakthrough in the year 1980 when it got a contract with IBM to develop an operating system that IBM was about to launch to the market. Microsoft developed Q_DOS which was used in the IBM computers. The Q_DOS was later renamed to MS-DOS. This made Microsoft achieve a greater step and later specialized in the provision of the operating systems. Since then the organization has grown and released many other operating system products that serve the entire globe. It later produced the windows operating systems, providing a graphical interface for the users, which now has a substantial market share in the industry (Angelo Ricky, 2009). The growth in Microsoft reveals the strong organizational skills that the company has had through its CEO Bill Gates. The organization made a good team that delivered timely quality software products. Besides, Microsoft had an excellent organization culture that motivated the employees to deliver the best. These attributes have made the organization to stay on top of other players in the technology industry and has now remained to be the industry leader in producing the operating systems. These factors helped to get the best out of the employees through their increased performance. This, in turn, helped to improve the profitability and sustainability of the organization (Bhatnagar, 2007). Employee Motivation and Retention at Microsoft Microsoft has been known for a long period in the industry to be among the best companies that embrace the best employee motivation and retention strategies in the market. The company is known to have a strong organizational culture that attracts and retain the best talents in the market. This was among the key drivers of the success of Microsoft in the industry. Motivated employees are productive, and this directly translates to better quality and profit margins to the organization which in turn gives the company a greater competitive advantage (ACAS, 2010). The employee motivation and retention culture continued until the late 1900s when the company stated experiencing key human resource issues that affected the company in many different ways. The experts argued that the issues happened at Microsoft were mostly attributed to the fact that the company had grown and achieved more and thus forgot about the organizational culture that has been guiding it. The company had initially been active in embracing its culture that advocated and focused on various important issues. These factors included the challenging working environment, the risk-taking culture and embracing the innovative culture. The organizations ignorance of the important HR aspects in the system led to frustrations of the employees in many different ways (Berger, 2009). In the year 1999, Microsoftsmanagement decided to make a restructure in the HR practices. The company focused on bringing about changes in the HR with a vision of improving the profitability of the organization by removing some of the programs that the company believed that they should cut down the cost which will, in turn, increase the organization's profitability. Most of these programs had a negative impact on the employee motivation and thus hampered with their welfare. These factors had negative impacts on the workers whereby it reduced their motivation which in turn brought about more different issues in the organization (Gerhart, 2007). Employee Motivation and Retention Issues at Microsoft Discrimination Some employees of Microsoft experienced discrimination at the workplace. There are some African American employees were discriminated in various ways which even made them file a case in court. The case brought it out clearly that these workers were discriminated along different lines such as performance evaluation methods whereby they could not getter a higher rating during performance evaluation. They were also rejected to more top offices in the organization due to discrimination in promotions. Besides, there were many cases where the Blacks got unfair terminations of their jobs, unlike other employees. Additionally, they also felt discriminations in the compensation terms, and they argued that they were denied bonuses and other benefits that others got. The discrimination case raised the eyebrows of the organizations management, especially to the outside market. Themanagement argued that the company policies advocates for a 100% non-tolerance of racial discrimination. Therefore, this shows that in as much as the company had the policies in place to eliminate the discrimination issues, it had not adhered to it. Therefore, this bought it out clearly that this HR issue happened just because the company was reluctant to enforce its policy. It already had the laws in place but did not enforce them. Besides, some other groups of people also complained about the description. For example, the contractual employees also complained about the discrimination in a company such as failure to receive training unlike other employees (Griffin, Neal Parker, 2007). Stringent and Rough Organizations Management Microsoft has a history of being tough and strict to its employees. Microsoft faced the issue of the tough leadership which was also too strict in everything that the workers did. They were encouraged to work hard and give their best in the company. The company had an organizational culture for perfection which has been helping to achieve more. However, for the aspect of rough leadership brings about employee related issues. When the employees were subjected to strictness, such as the strict timelines and perfection, it needed a better leadership. Roughmanagement team brought about a lot of pressure to the workers and since they were forced to deliver under bad rough leadership. Risk-Taking Culture The company lost direction in the aspect of taking risks. The company no longer accommodated employee mistakes and everybody was to avoid all kind of errors that might be committed in the workplace. The employees were forced to be accountable for their actions to negative issues in the company. Every worker was liable to their mistakes that might have been committed during working. They were expected to give explanations of errors that they happen at the work place during the process of undertaking the duty and in some cases even pay for them. Such an environment made the employees fear to do activities that might impact any form of negativity to the organization. Thus, the workers reduced their innovative culture due to the fear of the risks associated with trying out things. Therefore, this lowered the productivity of the workers in the company (Wood Menezes, 2011). Management and Bureaucracy Microsoft started as a small company and was doing well with the existing management structure. This was because the management system was able to accommodate its small business. As time went by, the organization started expanding to reach various nations around the globe. The aspect of growth necessitated the entrance of new people into the management team. The new people included the managers that have been appointed d top fill the gaps that exist in the organizations. Since the company was still the market leader through it perfection culture, it gave little regard to the implications or the impact of its expansion (Gerhart, 2007). Failure to review the management structure led to increased bureaucracy in the management system of the company and this had a negative impact on the organizations performance. This made it difficult for the junior employees to be heard and most often they were disregarded. Besides, making a small change in the operations required approval level which discouraged most of the employees in airing their grievances. Managing the grown population of diverse characteristics made it necessary for the management to make it efficient reduce bureaucracy in the systems (Cosack, Guthridge Lawson, 2010). Low Competition Rate Microsoft led the technological market for an extended period. Through its perfection culture, the company was able to produce the quality and timely products that satisfied their customers. The culture gave the company a bigger competitive advantage over other industry players (Cook, 2007). When the company remained at the top, it became reluctant and believed that everything was done right there. Thus, the lack of competition affected the performance and management of the Microsoft which in turn brought about the human resource issues (Chakraborty Gupta, 2010). Strategies to Improve Employee Motivation and Retention at Microsoft Communication When Brummel assumed office, she made reforms in the communication system of Microsoft. She introduced a system that encouraged and facilitated a smooth communication system in the organization both up and down vertical communication and also the horizontal communication. She introduced various programs such as the listening tour,' where she moved from one town to the other to get have the opinions and voices of the workers especially the junior staff. The improved communication system made it easy for the organizations management to hear the grievances of the employees and thus make efforts to sort them out. Also, the improved communication system gave the management an opportunity to have the opinions and the ideas that the company can embrace for its betterment. Additionally, a good communication system helps to improve the employee motivation (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2008). Workers get a sense of belonging to the organization when their views are heard and acted upon. Thus, this is one of the aspects that motivated the employees to make them more productive, which in turn increases the profitability of the organization (Cullinan, Bline, Farrar Lowe,2008). Performance Appraisal For a long time since its establishment, Microsoft has had a forced curve system which entailed ranking the employees and awarding those on top only. The forced curve system' had issues related to bias. It was subject to biases and thus, many employees felt the unfairness in the system which reduced their motivation to work for the organization. The approach denied the workers an opportunity for equal access and their rights to get the incentives or appraisals. The discrimination that exists in the method is also one of the factors that made the African American employees go to court to sue the company. Naturally, all the human beings feel good and motivated when their efforts are recognized. Brummel introduced reforms in the appraisal system from the forced ranking system to the commitment performance. The new approach eliminated the chances of bias in the appraisal system. The system does not restrict the number of people who have the opportunity to be rewarded and makes everyone a possible candidate for the reward (Incomes Data Services, 2008). Thus, it increases the equality in the systems, and some workers do not feel discriminated by the system. Therefore, the reform of the appraisal system played a critical role in ensuring that all the employees are motivated and stay willing to continue working for the organization (SUFF, 2010). Employee Benefits Microsoft made radical changes in the employee benefits as a way to curb its related issues. Some of these changes in the benefits include the inclusion in food availability, transport, child care, health benefits and other essential discounts. These benefits played a critical role in impressing the employees to get their commitment and motivation once again. The benefits made most of the employees to find working at Microsoft to be one of the best experiences and thus felt comfortable to continue working at the place (Chakraborty, 2010). Workers always feel to belong to the place and part of the organization when they receive the benefits from the company. Thus, employee benefits re critical for every business organization that seeks success. The initial state did not sufficiently consider the motivating the employees through a better motivation plan, and thus, the new approach was likely to impact positively to the motivation of the workers. It also gave Microsoft an opportunity to offer competitive salaries and benefits like other organizations. The employee benefits are one of the major employee motivation factors (Janas, 2009). An employee who receives sufficient remuneration and benefits are comfortable and have a peace of mind they are much productive. Therefore, the employee benefits reformations played a critical role in motivating and retaining the employees. Workplace Setup Microsoft introduced a new setup of the workplace as a way to make the workers feel comfortable within the working environment. The approach was creative and was one of the better ways to address the human resource issues that the organization was facing. The new creative workplace encouraged the more communication among the workers. It made the employees work from close positions which helped them to build a team which is productive to the company. This method encourages the unity and corporation of the team (Taylor, 2008). Besides, it promotes a comfortable working environment, thus increases the productivity of the workers. The introduction of the creative office setups was initially seen irrelevant and a waste of resources, however, this was not the case. The workplace environment encouraged the employees to work together and made all of them feel valuable to the organization. This was a big step towards achieving the employee motivation and retention. Besides, the new setup made the employees of Microsoft learn how to trust each other, and increase their bonding at the workplace. Thus, the new workplace designed played an important role in motivating and retaining the employees. Recommendations In as much as Microsoft is performing well towards achieving a better human resource system, there are various aspects the company should continue to focus upon as a way to motivate and retain the employees further. Firstly, there is need to adopt training and development. Employee training is one of the critical aspects that help the employees to feel comfortable and motivated to work for the organization. Workers always want growth of their knowledge and skills. The employees view companies that provide training and development programs to be the better employers who encourage their career growth in their life. Thus, it is critical for Microsoft to come up with a program that makes all the employees receive the training and development in their various job position. Secondly, it is also recommended that Microsoft integrates the best HR practices into its culture. The organizational culture is one of the most powerful aspects that help to implement the company's best practices effectively. Besides, it is also a right approach towards integrating and educating the people about the new reforms. Thus, capitalizing on the organizational culture is likely to yield more in the implementation of the changes. In its culture, Microsoft should discourage the toughness and harshness of the junior staff towards the senior ones in the company. This will relieve the workers from stress and make them more productive due to comfortable working terms. Therefore, the integration of the best HR practices into the organizational culture will be the best approach towards solving issues in the HR system of Microsoft. Conclusion In conclusion, it is clear that employee motivation and retention is one of the critical aspects the human resource of every company must embrace. Motivated employees are more productive than those who are not. Thus, this directly translates to the increased profitability of the company, which in turn gives the company a greater competitive advantage over others in the industry. There are various employee motivation and retention strategies that companies are embracing. These approaches revolve around communication, the employee remuneration, the workplace among others. It is recommended that companies also embrace training and development of the course. The best approach to implement these HR practices that encourage employee motivation and retention is through integration into the corporate culture. References ACAS. (2010). Managing attendance and employee turnover. London: ACAS. Available at: https://www.acas.org.uk. Angelo, S. Ricky, W. (2009). Human Resources Management, Biztantra Publication, New Delhi 2nd edition. Berger, J. (2009). Energized organization,' Smart Business Houston, Vol. 4 no. 4, pp5-5. Bhatnagar, J. (2007). Talent management strategy of the employee engagement in the Indian ITES employees: key to retention,'' Employee Relations, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 640663, 2007. Chakraborty, B (2010). Employee Motivation and the Retention Strategies at Microsoft Corporation. pp. 26-32 Chakraborty, B. Gupta, V. (2010). Employee Motivation and the Retention Strategies at Microsoft Corporation. Centre for Management Research, Case Reference no. 410-033-1. Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, (2008). HR Survey Cook, M. (2007). Keep the People You Need in the Outsourced Economy, Web document: URL: www.humanresources.about.com. Cosack, S., Guthridge, M. Lawson, E. (2010). Retaining key employees in times of change,' McKinsey Quarterly, no.3, pp135-139. Cullinan,C.,Bline,D.,Farrar,R.Lowe,D.(2008).Organization-Harmvs.Organization-GainEthicalIssues:AnExploratoryExaminationoftheEffectsofOrganizational Commitment, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 80, no. 2, p225-235 Foley, M. (2008). Microsoft 2.0: How Microsoft Plans to Stay Relevant in Post-Gates Era. Wiley, Gerhart, B., (2007). Horizontal and the Vertical Fit in Human Resource Systems, in Perspectives on Fit, eds. C. Ostroff and T.A. Judge, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 317 348. Griffin, M., Neal, A., Parker, S. (2007). A New Model of the Work Role Performance: Positive Behavior in the Uncertain and Interdependent Contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 327 347. ICMR Center for Management Research, pp. 1-16 Incomes Data Services. (2008). Improving the Staff Retention. HR Studies, No 863. London Janas, K. (2009). Keeping the good people during bad times. Workspan. 52, 66-70. Khanna, S. (2008). "Increasing the Employee Retention through Employee Engagement A challenge for HR," Annual Handbook of Human Resource Initiatives Srivastava, V. Shailesh, R. (2008). "Employee Retention: By Way of the Management Control Systems, ACM Ubiquity, 9.16, pp.22 - 28. SUFF, R. (2010). Labour turnover rates and the costs: IRS survey 2010.IRS Employment Review. 14 June, 9pp Taylor, C. (2008). Employee Retention Strategies: Learning and Development's Vital Role in Keeping the Great Talent, Maitland Center Parkway Maitland, FL: Talent Keepers 1060. Wood, S. Menezes, M., (2011). High involvement management, high-performance work systems, and well-being. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22, 1586-1610.

Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma

Identifying the Problem A code of ethics is very important in the professional lives of people in different professions. However, a code of ethics cannot replace human minds that have the ability to question, judge, experience emotions, and even act depending on different situations. Ethical codes cannot replace the struggles that people in helping professions like counseling go through with simple quick solutions.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The ethical struggles are sometimes unique situations, puzzling questions and demanding personal responsibilities that call for practical solutions not clearly stated in the codes of ethics. Sometimes conflicts arise between unclear codes of ethics and the need for practical solutions thereby presenting dilemmas. The case of Wilma, a counselor in a community agency, and Donna who is a client suffering from an anxiety disorder and panic attack is a real dilemma. Wilma discusses information that is considered private by Donna in a public place. The right to privacy implies that the decision of information such as opinions, emotions and personal data that someone is willing to share with other people is at an individual’s discretion. There is also a problem of breach of confidentiality on Wilma’s side. The code of professional ethics requires Wilma to keep the information she has on Donna a secret (American Counseling Association, 2005). The code of ethics applies even if the information seems harmless. There is a moral obligation by Wilma to ensure that Donna adheres to her treatment plan and gets better from her current situation hence the dilemma as stated in article 7.B.1 (South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulation, 2006). The simple fact that Wilma makes an inquiry on Donna’s progress in the presence of another person is a breach of privacy. Wilma’s frustration with Donna’s laxity with the homework she is given during the therapy session causes her to ask Donna about the homework. The context in which the confrontation occurs is wrong as both are in a public place. Furthermore, Wilma is not alone since she is in the company of a friend. Perhaps Donna’s visits to the community agency counseling center are a secret and the information divulged to anyone else may lead to further complications especially now that she is being helped overcome her condition of panic and anxiety. There is a possibility that Wilma is the reason Donna is not able to complete all her homework. They may be having problems such as a personality clash or a situation where Wilma is not competent enough to handle Donna’s case. A case of fidelity presents itself in this situation. The situation is a combination of an ethical and a clinical issue. An ethical issue arises due to the breach of the right to privacy a nd confidentiality. A clinical issue, on the other hand, comes about as the context in which the confrontation occurs may be a precipitating factor in a panic attack episode. Donna may get a panic attack as a result of the counselor’s indiscriminate behavior.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Applying the ACA Code of Ethics Wilma’s conduct is evidently inappropriate according to the American Counselors’ Association (ACA) Code of Ethics. Section B.I.b code of ethics on respect for privacy states that, â€Å"Counselors respect client rights to privacy. Counselors solicit private information from clients only when it is beneficial to the counseling process† (ACA, 2005, p. 8). At the specific moment, there is no therapeutic process in play hence a breach of ethics. In section B subsection 1.c, there is a code concerning respect for confidentiality, which re quires â€Å"counselors do not share confidential information without client consent or without sound legal or ethical justification† (American Counseling Association, 2005, p. 8). Wilma shares Donna’s issues from a personal perspective. The concern does not appear therapeutic since it is out of frustration that she chooses to check on her client’s progress and not as part of the therapy sessions requirements (American Counseling Association, 2005, p.8). According to section B in subsection 3.c., the code is clear on the setting in which to divulge confidential information. It is in a public setting that Wilma makes her inquiry from Donna. Donna is a waitress in an eatery that is obviously a public place. The sessions are meant to take place in a private place where the client does not feel intimidated or have feelings of insecurity with regard to personal information in possession of the therapist. The code states that â€Å"counselors discuss confidential inf ormation only in settings in which they can reasonably ensure client privacy† (American Counseling Association, 2005, p. 8). ACA code of ethics in section C subsection 2.a requires that therapists practice according to their limits of competence. Their competence is established by things such as the counselors’ education levels, supervised experience and necessary credentials. Nature and Dimensions of the Dilemma As mentioned earlier, the situation between Wilma and Donna is an ethical dilemma. This is a pure dilemma as the ACA codes of ethics require that Wilma maintains confidentiality unless otherwise stated. Nevertheless, an obligation stated in the principle of beneficence binds Wilma to ensure that Donna gets well. The fact that Wilma is a counselor in a community agency also presents a possible challenge that she may not be competent enough to handle cases of anxiety and panic attack disorders yet Donna needs help to overcome her current condition. Potential Cour ses of Action There is a need for Wilma as a professional counselor to follow strict guidelines as required by the ethical decision making model. At this stage, she must identify potential action plans to solve the ethical issue presented. There may be a need to be very strict with Donna, therefore, undermining her right to autonomy. She may also choose to let Donna go if Donna is not willing to accomplish her therapeutic tasks since Donna’s well-being is largely dependent on how well she accomplishes her tasks.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, failing to accomplish these tasks is synonymous to time wasting. A possible alternative is following Donna to her place of work and checking on her progress in private. This is likely to help her accomplish the therapeutic tasks required to make Donna get well. Wilma also has a choice of changing the therapeutic approach she uses on Donna as a new approach may yield better results. There is a chance to refer the client as Wilma may consider Donna’s case as that which is beyond her competence level. This is in accordance to chapter 36 article 7 section B.10 of South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulations (2006, p. 21), which states â€Å"when a professional counselor determines an inability to be of professional assistance to a potential or existing client, the counselor must, respectively, not initiate the counseling relationship or immediately terminate the relationship. In either event, the counselor must suggest appropriate alternatives and be knowledgeable about referral resources so that a satisfactory referral can be initiated. If the client declines the referral, the counselor shall not be obligated to continue the relationship.† Evaluating Potential Courses of Action There are possible repercussions that may arise du e to the course of action taken. The repercussions should be considered in detail for the best course of action to be applied. Since Donna has a legal right to autonomy, her freedom of choice should at all times be respected even by her therapist. The respect holds even when the choices she makes have little or no sense, for instance, the choice of not completing her therapeutic homework. There is a possibility that Donna may take actions against Wilma if her autonomy is undermined. The actions may include reporting Wilma to her seniors or even taking legal action. Wilma’s plan to release Donna from her therapeutic care may also have consequences. The consequence of this action is failure to maintain the client’s welfare to the highest possible level that is a legal duty of the counselor. Following Donna to her place of work may present a legal issue. This action can be interpreted as stalking. The final possible plan of action is referring the client. However, this ac tion may also have its shortcomings. The suggestion may not go well with Donna for reasons such as fear of the unknown.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More She can also interpret her case as so hopeless that she cannot get help elsewhere having failed in the first instance. Donna may also experience feelings of rejection since she may not consider the referral objectively and might take it personally. In such a case, it is important to let Donna know that she is special and unique and that she needs someone who understands her better. Implementing the Course of Action The most appropriate course of action in the Donna and Wilma case is to refer the client (Donna). Perhaps there are reasonable explanations why Donna fails to do her homework. These reasons may be beyond Wilma as a professional counselor. This then requires Wilma to accept that her competence is limited. Therefore, she should allow Donna to seek help elsewhere. The referral is in line with the ethical principle of veracity. The principle of veracity is the counselors’ honesty in accepting their limitations as professionals. Wilma should be careful to consider all c onsequences the situation may bring to her as a professional (Akfert, 2013). There is a need to explore all options carefully as referring Donna might bring up additional ethical issues. Wilma needs to do a critical evaluation of the decision to refer Donna and check if it is fair to do so. Wilma must consider how comfortable she can be with the decision if the same is suggested for her. She should be comfortable recommending this solution to another counselor in a similar dilemma. She should also consider the universality test, which is a necessary condition for approval of the course of action taken (Akfert, 2013). The universality test entails how well the issue goes down with the press and the community at large. The action should receive positive publicity should the information leak out to the press. Making a Follow-up The final stage in the ethical decision making model is making a follow- up. Wilma should follow up Donna’s case to check whether her referral yields the anticipated outcome. Counselors handle an array of diverse of circumstances and each clinician has his own distinct style of handling the different situations. Therefore, Wilma should accept her shortcomings in handling Donna’s case and resolving the dilemma. References Akfert, S. K. (2013). Ethical dilemmas experienced by psychological counselors working at different institutions and their attitudes and behaviors s a response to these dilemmas. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 12(3), 1806-1812. American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA Code of Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.counseling.org/Resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulation. (2006). Code of regulation and code of ethics, chapter 36. Web. This research paper on Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma was written and submitted by user Georgia Schultz to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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The Kerala Model Of Development Economics Essay

The Kerala Model Of Development Economics Essay Sustainable development is a pattern of resourses use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for the future generation (WCED, 1987, p.43). Introduction Kerala has become a model for social development with limiting improvement in an industrialisation sector. Furthermore, Kerala has undermined the broadly accepted idea that the improvement in the standard of living of people can only be achieved after the successful, rapid and steady economic development. Kerala Model of Development took on the theory that economic growth is the only way to meet basic needs of people in poverty, to raise them above poverty, and generate employment. (World development vol.29, no  ², pp.601-617,2001 The new kerala model: lessons for sustainable development rene veron). 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The fertility rate is just 1.7 births per woman lower than in Sweden. The fact is that Kerala is also socially and politically different from the rest of India. While the other states in India refashioning itself in the image of western lifestyle and economy, Kerala remains a communist state with very strong influence of trade unions, and more or less centralize politics. Also Muslim and Christian minorities co-exist peacefully with Hindus, wh ich make this state outstanding of all India. On the other hand despite large capacity of natural resources, Kerala suffers from lack of the industrial investment from international and Indian companies, mostly for fear of the states difficult trade unions, pro-union courts, and high minimum wages. As a consequence Kerala has the highest unemployment rates among Indians state. It is estimates that in 2003 unemployment were as high as 25 percent ( K. C Zachriah 2005 p.21). In addition, Kerala has large budget deficits. According to Karalas budget report from 2005 country debt was Rs.41, 878 crore, which was 39.1 percent of the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) One of the main successful stories of Keralas development is education. Kerala has been able to reduce the regional and gender gaps in education, literacy and enrolment at all level of education. More than 94 percent of the rural population has access to primary schools within a distance of one kilometre, while 98 per cent of population has got one school within a distance of two kilometres. Furthermore 96 percent of the population is served by an upper primary school within a travel distance of 3 kilometres and one-fourth by a secondary school within 2 kilometers. Nearly 98 percent of the rural population has the facility for secondary education within 6 to 8 km (Najith Kumar, K.K. George, 2009, p. 55). Also facilities of higher education and technical education are accessible to rural students in reasonable distance. Another aspect of Keralas education system is presents of the non-formal education institutions, which are offering courses. Interesting fact is that Keralas students counts on one- fifth of the whole population. Also the education system employs 18 percent of the population. The number of teachers is equivalent to about 50 per cent of the total number of workers in the registered factories. The reasons laid on the government no- fees policy for primary and secondary education, as well as low fees for the higher education and technical education institutions. Additionally, easy and highly subsidised transport system for students, especially from rural areas, makes the education more affordable. In addition Kerala has been able to achieve gender equity in education system. Nearly half of the students in lower primary classes are girls. The female literacy in Kerala at 86 per cent is far above the all-India rate of 39 percent, and as high as in many developed countries. For example in China the female literacy is 93 percent placing Kerala in close position considering the country population. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html On the other hand, rural female literacy rate in Kerala is higher than every individual province in China (Amartya Sen, 1994T 2.pdf). Furthermore, the number of girls entering education, except technical and professional education, is much higher than the boys (p.38 2pdf). Education contributes in many ways to Kerala development. Particularly womens education has played important role in declining the mortality rates. Educated women are better able to take charge of their lives. For example, the typical Keralas woman gets married at the 22 age, compared to 18 in the rest of India. On an average, women with at least an elementary education give a birth to two children less than uneducated women. Whats more, they also want a good education for their children, particularly their daughters. On the other hand, despite progress in gender equality in education, violence against women increases particularly domestic violence. A study conducted by INCLEN and ICRW on domestic violence in Kerala found that as high as 62.,3 percent of the women in Kerala are subjected to physical torture and mental harassment as compared to 37 percent and 35.5 percent at the national India level. (ICRW 2002). There are increasing reports of dowry related violence, rape and other abuse against women in Kerala (Womens Commission, 1999). This is fallow by reports of poor mental health with increase of the cases of depression found among the women. The other notable aspect of Keralas gender equality is little participation and representation women in politics, political parties and the trade union. Out of 144 seats in the State assembly, the number of women has never been more than 13, what is 10 percent of the all sates. (Sakhi women resource centre, The situation of women in the state: the gender paradox). Questions are being raised whether public and private expenditure to sustain educational activity on such a massive scale has really generated returns in terms of economic development and employment generation. Definitely it generated in human development. The fact is that service sector including education is the fastest growing sector in Kerala economy. Its share improved steadily from 36.4 percent in 1980- 81 to 40.1 percent in 1990-91 and further to 45.4 percent 1997-98 (EPW Research Foundation, 2003). Second, the biggest achievement of Kerala Model of Development is control of the population growth. In the seventies, the growth rate in population declined from 2.33 percent in the sixties to 1.76 percent. In the eighties the growth rate in population comes down to 1.34 percent. In the nineties it was just 0.91 percent. Birth rate had come down from 25.0 during 1974-80 to 20.3 during 1984-90 and to 17.1 during 1994-2001. S Irudaya accented that the Total Fertility Rate declined from 2.9 to 2.0 and to 1.7 during this period (S.Irudaya Rajan and Sabu Aliyar, 2004). It had impact on family transition, the number of children in a household. The two-child family is the social norm here now, said M.N. Sivaram, the Trivandrumcapital of Keralarepresentative of the International Family Planning Association. Even among illiterate women we find its true. When we send our surveyors out, people are embarrassed to say if they have more than two kids. Seven or eight years ago, the norm was three c hildren and we thought we were doing pretty well. Now its two, and among the most educated people, its one. (Dynamics of Change in Keralas Education System:The Socio-economic and Political Dimensions K.K.George Parvathy Sunaina Working paper No.12 ). Also according to current data, the expectation of life at birth of males is 71.2 years, against an Indian average of 59.1 years, and the expectation of life at birth of females is 73.7 years, against an Indian average of 60.4 years. Keralas access to affordable health care and education has huge impact on birth and mortality rate of the population. Birth control is wildly accessible. There is a dispensary every few kilometres where IUDs and other forms of birth control are freely available. The health clinics provide cheap health care for children, programs for mothers like breast-feeding, and a state-supported nutrition program for pregnant and new mothers. For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered what place Kerala among developed countries. Kearla Model of Development shows also improvement in living conditions. According to K. R Nayar 47 per cent of the rural population and 74 per cent of the urban population are covered by protected water supply. The dependence on surface water for drinking is less than one per cent in the state. More than four- fifth of the people have access to water supply within their own premises. The share of people who have to travel for more than half a kilometre for drinking water is just 1.7 per cent in the rural areas and 0.4 per cent in the urban areas (K.R.Nayar, 1997). Important factor to Keralas social development was land reform, which completely transformed landownership system, and ended janmi system. It also protected tenants, and ended system of rack-renting. It shifted house and land ownership to poor families. Furthermore, in 1989 the government initiated the group-farming program, which provides families with financial and technical assistance. The program was expected to be a key to reduction of production costs and raise efficiency of paddy cultivation. But despite this it seems that Keralas agriculture is today neither a life activity of the families nor a important economic activity, except for a limited number of plantation crops, and rubber. The radical changes in Keralas agrarian economy have also led to transformations in the nature of agricultural activities, employment, and lifestyles. Firstly, today the average farmer in Kerala is not engaged personally in most agricultural activities. Secondly, a substantial number of farming f amilies have non-agricultural sources of income. Instead the income comes mainly from abroad remittance or employment in Keralas highly occupied service sector, like education, public sector, etc. Secondly, agricultural, traditional economic activities, like small fishing businesses, are no longer seen as an economically virtual provider of income, an adequate return of investment. Thirdly, the existence of labour shortages together with high unemployment raised the perception that these jobs are economically worthless. Final and probably more important aspect is the low status of irksome jobs, which it seems to be no longer culturally desirable option for a young and educated generation. As a consequence land in Kerala doesnt have value for an agricultural use, but only for residential needs and as an indicator of social position, as well as a resource of the safe investment. It seems Kerala agriculture does not contributing in major way to the country economy. The share of agricul ture in NSDP has come down from 39.1percent in 1980-81 to 35.7 percent in 1990-91. It came down further to 30.6 percent in 1997-98 and still dropping down (Pillai N. India 05 p. 28 -31). The state is heavily dependent on imports for meeting its food requirements in addition some traditional occupation in agriculture is disappearing due to lack of interest and market competition. For example an occupation of coconut-picking is abounded from agriculture. Rashied, whose family was living from this profession from generation, said Not one of my sons or my brothers sons or my sisters sons has taken up the occupation of coconut-picking. In fact, there is not a single family in our community (caste) which has a son in this occupation. After all, climbing trees and picking coconuts requires hard physical work, not the game of tricking and hoodwinking, to which the new generation in Kerala has now become accustomed. An elderly coconut picker and a life-long activist in the Communist Party of India commenting on the severe shortage of coconut pickers. (Interview with the author, 1994). The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India By Joseph Tharamangalam In termes of development infrastructure like transport, telephone line banking system Kerala made the leading place among Indian states. The banking system, particularly growths study mostly thanks to Gulf remittance. Between 2000 and 2001 Kerala had 9,8 banks per 100-sq km of area, much above all India 2.1 per 100-sq km. Investment in communication system brought Kerala to the leading state in India. In 2002, Keralas telephone concentration was 85 per 1000 population, within 71 in the rural areas. In addition, Keralas transport, which has huge impact on population accessibility to education and health care, shows impressive growth. On the other hand, power sector suffers on improvement. For egzample, in 2001 only 70,2 percent of rural household had complete electrification (Pillai N. India 05 p. 28 -31). The fact is that Kerala Model of Development have not improvement or little in others development indicators. For example, Keralas Model is failing in creating job Market. Unemployment is very high. Though there was growth in NSDP during the nineties, it was actually a jobless growth. The employment stretch for Kerala for the period 1993-94 to 1999-00 was the lowest among the major states in India. While the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of the State grew by 5.5 percent per annum during this period, employment grew by just 0.7 percent. As a result, unemployment rate of Kerala increased from 15.5 percent in 1993-94 to 21.0 percent in 1999-2000. The rate of unemployment in Kerala was almost three times the all India rate. (The Economic Survey, 2003-04). Unemployment problem in Kerala is largely a problem of the educated population More than one-fourth of the rural educated and one-fifth of the urban educated were unemployed in the State. Unemployment rate among the educated perso ns above fifteen years was much higher than the rate for the general population in this age group. The problem was much more acute among educated women. Nearly half of the educated women in the rural areas were unemployed. In the urban areas, more than 40 percent of the educated women were unemployed (B.A.Prakash and M.P.Abraham, 2004). Also work seekers in 80 percent had qualifications of SSLC and above. The proportion of this category of work seekers was increasing in the nineties (Economic Review, 2003). Among the professional and technical work seekers, the largest group was that of ITI certificate holders (68.5 percent). The next significant group was that of diploma holders in engineering and technology (23.9 percent). The growth in unemployment among the educated is not surprising as the employment in the organized sector grew only by 7.7 percent between 1990 and 2002. The public sector employment showed only marginal increase during the above period (1.6 percent). Though gro wth in private sector employment (15.3 percent) was relatively high, it was inadequate to offset the near stagnation in public sector employment The increasing unemployment of the educated group rises the question if is any point in government spending more funds on education, which leads only to higher unemployment. Instead Kerala government should spend more investment on creating for them job market and create education structure according to the market needs. On the other hand, despite large scale unemployment particularly among the educated population, the private demand for higher education has been increasing. It seems that high unemployment and competition among qualified population looking for jobs has led to the upgrading qualifications standards. Higher skills and qualifications, or even escalation of qualifications, are see as a securing future job. Easy access to the higher educational institutions, affordable school fee and the low transportation cost made it possible. Another factor that increases the demand for higher education, despite low rate of employment among educated people, is the relatively lower waiting period and higher compensation for better-qualified candidates (E.T.Mathew, 1995). Even though Kerala has a large unemployment, this region is still an economic migration for many unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled labours, mostly from neighbouring states like Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Orissa or West Bengal. The migrants are replacing Keralas own leaving population on a hunt for work abroad. The way, which Kerala deals with the unemployment and lack of industrialisation is economical migration it population. According to K, C.Zachariah Migration has provided the single most dynamic factor in the other wise dismal scenario of Kerala in the last quarter of the 20th Century. It is one of the positive outcomes of the Kerala Model of Development. In Kerala, migration must have contributed more to poverty alleviation than any other factor including agrarian reforms, trade union activities and social welfare legislation (K.C.Zachariah, E.T.Mathew and S.Irudaya Rajan, 2000). The number of Kerala emigrants to other countries looking for a job increased from 230,740 in 1982 to 637,103 in 1992 and to 1844,023 in 2003. The annual remittances from the emigrants increased from Rs.13, 652 crores in 1999 to Rs.18, 465 crores in 2003 and still reasing. the remittances to Kerala from its emigrants to other countries alone were equivalent to 22-25 percent of NSDP (K.C.Zachariah and S.Iruda ya Rajan, 2004).The remittances had made tremendous impact on income distribution among regions, communities and religious groups, as well as made impact on poverty reduction. Today Keralas economy is linked more to countries outside particularly to the Gulf countries than to some of the regions within the country. Both the labor markets abroad and the remittances of the emigrants have influenced on Kerala income. Average annual remittances ranged from Rs. 536 crores during 1980-85 to Rs. 10,835 crores during 1995-2000. As a percentage of the State Domestic Product (SDP) remittances constituted, on an average, around 11 percent since early eighties to the early nineties (till the end of the fixed exchange rate system). During the nineties it increased to around 21 per cent (K P Kannan, K S Hari 2000). Today Kerala economy structure relay mostly on remintence. The share of agriculture in NSDP has come down from 39.1percent in 1980-81 to 35.7 percent in 1990-91. It came down further to 30.6 percent in 1997-98. The share of industry also came down, though only marginally. Its share came down from 24.5 percent to 24.2 percent and further to 24.0 percent during the period. Service sector was the fastest growing sector in Kerala economy. Its share improved steadily from 36.4 percent in 1980- 81 to 40.1 percent in 1990-91 and further to 45.4 percent 1997-98 (EPW Research Foundation, 2003). Conclusion Keralas development Achived majore success in human developmen like mnimum social security, food security, minimum gender differences in education, as well as easy and affordable access to health care. Also significantly, Kerala distributed all the achievements relatively equally across urban-rural areas, between man and women, and low caste-high caste populations. In this respect Kerala does better than the rest of India, and some of developed countries. The existence of subsidised education has provided a fair degree for all social groups. On the economic front too, there has been great achievements in laying out transport and communication, banking system. On the other hand, Kerala Model is failing in providing equality between women and man in terms of jobs and wage rate. But the biggest flaw in this model is creating high unemployment, especially among educated population. Investing only in education sector without creating job market placed Kerala among country of great risk of floating high skills population out of the country. The increasing unemployment of the educated rises the question if is any point in government spending more funds on education, which leads only to higher unemployment. Instead Karalla government should spend more on investment at economy, agriculture, and industrialisation. Especially that economic migration to Gulf, high source of the state romances, facing the major competition from much cheaper labour from others poor Asian countries. Until now the remittances contribute to inflation, but do not help to resolve the fiscal problems. Furthermore it seems the human development could raise duo to Keralas history, and also mainly staying on the communist road of the politics. Communist government put more investments on social sectors like education and health neglecting mostly industry, and except land reform, agriculture. Another aspect of the success of the model is the Kerala economy exists and functions as an integral part of t he Indian economy and politics. Next aspect which should Karalla government deal with is that in a changing India, doing business is increasingly important and strong union and lack of flexibility makes impossible to invest by international corporation. As economic liberalization takes place in other states of India and tariffs are being lowered, as well as subsidized economy ended by turning to free-market enterprise and wooing multinational industries Kerala seems to be less attractive for potential investors. Kaerala does suffer from great fiscal deficitperhaps the problem laid down to a generous minimum wage; one of the best distribution systems in the country, leading to a network of shops that sell everything from rice to batteries at subsidized prices; and a land-reform program. Definitely Karela has been transforming itself from extremely poor state, ridden with caste and class conflicts and burdened by high birth, infant-mortality, and population grow rates into social- democratic state with low birth, and high leve of litratucy. But in terms of present economical situation the social development could be challenging to sustain steady. . There is a high road of development where it is possible to have growth with poverty reduction through job creation, reduced in-equality including gender in-equality and sustainable social development. The possibility of success of this growth depends on the kinds of jobs one creates. It also depends upon making, strengthening and improving policies based on gender equality for social developments. Sri Lanka has not done very well in this path, by way of growth. It is seen that in this path there is growing inequality, worsening gender indicators, and the potential for worsening social development. if social development does not generate growth and employment opportunities, what will be the major implication of such a situation which can even create an explosive situation. The development experience of Kerala poses many challenges for the development of Kerala in the new millennium. (jacket) http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no55611.htm That social development becomes un- sustainable with out economic growth, and over time can limits whatever further improvements may be possible. Strong social development by itself does not lead to high economic growth. Poor economic growth may limit whatever social development Kerala have achieved and whatever future social development could be necessary T high social development can actually limit the further capacity for poverty eradication and growth. This is because the focus is on social development with out adequate attention to the issues of economic growth and there is the inability to use the resources effectively by paying sufficient attention to the requirements- inability because you are not paying attention to the requirements and possibilities of economic growth itself. There is no attention being paid to the possibilities created by the social development itself and the resources thus created. For example, Kerala is relatively slow in recognizing the potentials of a relatively highly educated labor force beyond sending them out as migrants. Another example may be really to recognize or to take advantage of the fact that Kerala is one of Indias major places of Ayurveda, which is becoming a major global industry in the context of biotechnology. So the inability to see Keralas own resources, potentials, possibilities as w ell as the risks of not paying attention to the situations comes from an approach which does not sufficiently pay attention to the problems of economic growth. Bibliografia (http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century insights from CDS gulf migration studies K. C. Zachariah S. Irudaya Rajan August 2005 working paper 374 p. 21). http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/98sep/kerala.htm S E P T E M B E R  Ã‚  1 9 9 8 Development and quality of life cant always be measured purely in economic terms. The Indian state of Kerala is a case in point Akash Kapur September 1998 Poor but Prosperous 324 pdf) (http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century insights from CDS gulf migration studies K. C. Zachariah S. Irudaya Rajan August 2005 working paper 374 p. 21) ) Keralas education system: from inclusion to exclusion, Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55 ) (Amartya Sen, 1994T 2.pdf http://www.csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/2.pdf Sakhi women resource centre, The situation of women in the state: the gender paradox. http://sakhikerala.org/Status%20of%20Women%20in%20Kerala%20.html Dynamics of Change in Keralas Education System:The Socio-economic and Political Dimensions K.K.George Parvathy Sunaina Working paper No.12 http://csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/12.pdf (K.R.Nayar, 1997 Nayar K.R, Housing Amenities and Health Improvement: SomeFindings, Economic and Political Weekly, May 31- June 6, ). KERALA THE LAND OF DEVELOPMENT PARADOXES K.K.George and N.Ajith Kumar Working Paper No.2 November 1997 http://www.csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/2.pdf (INFRASTRUCTURE, GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN KERALA Pillai N., Vijayamohanan Centre for Development Studies, Prasanth Nagar, Ulloor, Trivandrum, Kerala, India 05 p. 28 -31). KERALAS GULF CONNECTION Emigration, Remittances and their Macroeconomic Impact 1972-2000 K. P. Kannan K. S. Hari Working Paper No. 328

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in U

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in Urban America? The last three decades have witnessed a â€Å"retreat from marriage† in the United States, marked by high rates of nonmarital births, lower rates of marriage, and divorce. Although a growing body of research on the retreat from marriage has focused on its social and economic causes, little attention has been paid to the role that cultural institutions play in furthering or resisting the retreat from marriage. This paper focuses on the role that religious institutions—and the cultural norms and behaviors they promote—play in resisting this retreat among new parents in urban America. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we find that urban mothers who attend church regularly are significantly more likely to be married at the time of birth compared to urban mothers who do not attend church frequently, and that urban mothers who have a nonmarital birth are significantly more likely to marry within a year of that birth if they attend church f requently. These religious effects are mediated in part by the relationship-related beliefs and behaviors promoted by churches. Church-going urban mothers express higher levels of normative commitment to the institution of marriage. They also are more likely to benefit from higher levels of supportive behavior (e.g., affection) from the father of their children and lower levels of conflict with the father over sexual fidelity. Thus, by fostering beliefs and behaviors that support matrimony, religious institutions help urban mothers make the transition to marriage in communities where marriage has become increasingly infrequent. Recently, there has been a huge decline in marriage... ...ay also help explain distinctive class, racial, and ethnic patterns of marriage. Works Cited Furstenberg, Frank. 2001. â€Å"The Fading Dream: Prospects for Marriage in the Inner City.† In Problem of the Century, edited by E. Anderson and D. Massey. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation Allison, Paul D. 1995. Survival Analysis using the SAS System: A Practical Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.. Anderson, Katherine, Don Browning, and Brian Boyer. 2002. Marriage: Just a Piece of Paper? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Axinn, William G. and Arland Thornton. 2000. â€Å"The Transformation in the Meaning of Marriage.† In The Ties that Bind, edited by L. Waite. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Thornton, Arland, William G. Axinn, and Daniel H. Hill. 1992. â€Å"Reciprocal Effects of Religiosity, Cohabitation, and Marriage.† American Journal of Sociology 98:628-651.

Problem of Historical Distortion – Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab

THE PROBLEM OF HISTORICAL DISTORTION: A Survey of Literature on Imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab as viewed through the Western slant of history By Kazi Zulkader Siddiqui The Problem of Historical DistortionOf the past fourteen centuries of the Islamic civilization, its thought, its institutions and the personalities who have contributed to its development and glory, stagnation and disintegration, the historical perspective painted by the Judaeo-Christian West has been markedly distinctive from the picture presented by the Muslim scholars, varying from outright hostile and distorted versions to the recent sympathetic (and sometimes empathetic) accounts.History is one of those branches of knowledge that can be used most effectively for the glorification and upliftment of one's own people at the expense of the traditions of others, leading eventually to a subversive imposition of one's own norms, values and way of life as the standard for others. Most, if not all of the people emanatin g from the Judaeo-Christian tradition who have penned their understanding of the Islamic civilization, have been prey to such underlying motives.This is not unique though since the subjective bias and assumptions of the historian in question are an integral part of the writing of history. What becomes remarkable in this case is the effective use of the historical perspective of other people for the exploitation of the same. This becomes manifest then, for example, in the notorious ‘Divide and Rule' policy of the post-renaissance British Empire. The Old Testament Hebraic heritage has a lot to offer in comprehending this attitude and mentality of the Western writer.The Old Testament (in the Bible) was written primarily to identify the ancestry and heritage of the Jews and thereby declare their superiority over all other nations. The other nations mentioned in the Old Testament are merely for the sake of justification of the crimes of the Children of Israel. Likewise, the modern Western writer is not concerned about the absolute and relative truths. He is more concerned about justifying or explaining away the phenomena of other civilizations. Through this he either hopes to dominate over the other civilizations, or to convert them to his own ways.We are well aware that our foregoing remarks are heavily loaded with our own assumptions; but there are certain assumptions, which are derived through the cognitive and perceptive processes using the facts of history as the starting point. Thus, in this case, the assumptions are elevated to the level of derived facts and axioms. To prove our point, we have chosen for this paper a survey of the literature in English produced by the West during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on the famous and controversial imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1789).As a prominent figure in Islamic history, loved by many and hated by many others of the Muslims, he has managed to attract the attention of the Western colonia lists, missionaries, and historians who were neither, right from his own lifetime to the present. Far greater than the Imam himself is the impact of his followers – the Muwa idun or the so-called Wahhabis – on the Western literature about Islam. The schismatic element in the nature of the controversy between the followers of the Imam and other Muslims has held great interest for the very reasons we have outlined above.The analysis will become far more categorical as we proceed with the survey itself. Besides, this analysis can be made much more precise, accurate and to the point if one were to attempt a similar exercise on the survey of the Western literature about the followers of the Imam. In this paper we shall limit ourselves to the Imam only. To begin with, it would be appropriate to narrate the salient features of the Imam's life briefly. Page 2 The Problem of Historical Distortion Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab: A Brief Biography: Coming from a learned family, 1 M u? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab was born in 1115/1703 at `Uyaynah, a small town roughly 30 Km northwest of Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. His ancestors had been steeped in the ? anbali tradition, and so was young Mu? ammad's education. As a young man, he left `Uyaynah for further studies. His search for learning took him to Makkah, Madinah and Damascus. He acquired great admiration for Ibn Taymiyah (d. 728/1328) through the shaykh `Abd Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Najdi at Madinah. Madinah also offered him a chance to teach for quite some time. Subsequently, he continued this occupation at the Umayyad mosque of Damascus.His journeys took him east to Basrah as well, where, besides acquiring further knowledge of the traditional sciences, he got the chance of getting acquainted with Shi`i and Sufi circles, their ways and ideas. This period ascertained for him the formulation of a mission in his mind. According to the Lam` al-Shihab, 2 he stayed in Basrah for four years and then moved to Baghdad. There he married a wealthy lady and remained for five years. He next went to Hamadan and then to Isfahan in 1148/1736 to study philosophy and Sufism. His quest for knowledge led him to Cairo and Damascus as well.Upon the settlement of his father in Huraymilah near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab joined him, and it was here that the Imam composed his first work on taw? id, and also gathered disciples. After the death of his father in 1153/1740, he left Huraymilah for `Uyaynah where he spent four years. During his stay there, the governor `Uthman ibn Bishr of the Banu Mu`ammar became his follower. This became a cause for consternation among the powerful Banu Khalid. His preaching against shirk (associating partners with Allah) that was practiced by the masses, and against their moral laxity shook the roots of the society.As a result, the Imam was forced to leave `Uyaynah and seek refuge in Dir`iyah (which is around 10-15 Km from `Uyaynah in the direction of Riyadh), where he found followers among the amir Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud's brothers and son. Eventually the Amir also supported him. The Amir and the Imam took a bay`ah (an oath of mutual loyalty), â€Å"to strive, by force if necessary, to make the kingdom of God's word prevail†. 3 This was the beginning of the religio-political reality that was to engulf the whole of Najd and its neighbouring territories during the decades to come, first under the amir Mu? mmad ibn Sa`ud (d. 1178/1765), then under his son `Abd al-`Aziz (d. 1218/1803) and his grandson Sa`ud (d. 1229/1814). We leave the story of the Al Sa`ud for other historians to narrate, and return to the man who called for the return to taw? id (God's unity) and a true practice of Islam. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab continued his role as teacher in the mosque of Dir`iyah, as political counselor of the Amir, and as a preacher writing theological works and extending his da`wah to the neighbouring areas until his death in 1204/1789. 4 Bearing this brief picture of the Imam in mind, we ow turn to his Western biographers and their accounts. â€Å"His grandfather Sulayman b. Mu? ammad had been mufti of the Nadjd. His father `Abd al-Wahhab was kadi at `Uyayna during the emirate of `Abd Allah b. Mu? ammad b. Mu`ammar; he taught ? adith and fikh in the mosques of the town and left several works of ? anbali inspiration, which in part survive†. Laoust, EI2, III:677, col. 2. 2 Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 3 Laoust, EI2, III:678, col. 2. Most of the facts have been taken from this same source. Most historians give the year of death as 1206/1792. See Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, â€Å"A Diplomat's Report on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), p. 38, for the argument in favour of 1204/1789 as the correct date. Page 3 1 The Problem of Historical Distortion WESTERN ACCOUNTS ABOUT THE IM M: M. Carsten Niebuhr (1733-1815): The first European to mention the Imam in his writings was M. Carsten Niebuhr who visited the peninsula in 1761-1764, that is within four years of the bay`ah taken between the Imam and ibn Sa`ud. He published his reports in German in 1772 and 1778.An abridged English version of his writings appeared first in 1792 entitled Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East. 5 Niebuhr and his companions had embarked upon an ecclesiastical mission to gather some information about this ancient land of Arabia, which had been the cradle of Christianity just as it had been for Judaism and Islam. Many people have noted the false and misleading remarks of Niebuhr with regards to the Imam. In the drama depicted by Niebuhr, there are two important characters in the founding of â€Å"the New Religion of a Part of Nedsjed†, 6 namely one â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb† and his son â€Å"Mahomet†. His description of ibn `Abd al-Wahhab's youth seems to tally with the facts of the Imam's life. Now this â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, having founded his religion, converts several Schiechs (i. e. shaykhs) to his faith, and virtually becomes their ruler. He reduces a great part of â€Å"El Ared†, thus seemingly also performing the role of ibn Sa`ud. After the father's death, the son â€Å"Mahomet† takes over the small empire built by his father, sustaining â€Å"the supreme ecclesiastical character in El Ared†. Among his beliefs cited are that â€Å"he considered Mahomet, Jesus Christ, Moses, and many others, respected by the Sunnites in the character of prophets, as merely great men, whose history might be read with improvement; denying that any book had ever been written by divine inspiration, or brought down from the heaven by the angel Gabriel. † 9 Against the beliefs of â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, he contrasts the Sunnites as a â€Å"superstitious sect† whose opinions are false, depending on â€Å"their own whimsies† to explain the â€Å" Alcoran†, acknowledging saints â€Å"to whom many absurd miracles are ascribed†, etc. 0 Finally, he concludes that ‘The new religion of Abd ul Wahheb deserves therefore to be regarded as a reformation of Mahometism, reducing it back to its original simplicity†. 11 The inaccuracies of Niebuhr's reporting continued in the Western understanding for many decades as we shall see. Sir Harford Jones Brydges: Far more accurate in his reporting was the civil servant of the colonialist British, Sir Harford Jones Brydges, who sent his first report on the Wahhabis from Baghdad to the British Foreign Office in C. M. Niebuhr, Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. nto English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison & Son, 1792. Cf. also Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 33 and a review of Niebuhr's life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 by V. B. Mehta. 6 Niebuhr, II:130. Note that Nedsjed is Najd. 7 Ibid. , II:131-3. 8 Ibid. , II :133. 9 Ibid. , II:134. 10 Ibid. , II:135. 11 Ibid. , II:135. Page 4 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion 1799, that is within a decade of the death of the Imam. 12 The weakest part of his report is the following anecdote: â€Å"Shaik Ibn Mahamer 13 proud of possessing this new Sectuary gave Moolah Mohammed 14 his own Sister inMarriage and Moolah Mohammed sometime after, under pretense, that his Brother in Law Mahamer perverted Justice and oppressed the Tribe, murdered him with his own hands in the Mosque as he was at prayers meaning thereby, as he declared, to give to the People of Ayenah 15 a proof that his love for Justice was so great, that neither the obligations which he had to, nor alliance he had with Shaik Mahamer could withhold him from punishing even in him that he conceived to be a deviation from it. The People of Ayenah however appear to have had too much good Sense, to esteem as meritorious, so horrible a Transaction, and they obliged Moolah Mohammed, to abandon Aye nah, and he fled to Dereah 16 where he found an Asylum and Protector in Shaik Ibn Soud, the Governor of that place, who also embraced his Doctrines†. 17 Historically we know that `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar died a natural death after the Imam had left for Dir`iyah, and that his expulsion from `Uyaynah was due to the pressures from various parts of that area against his teachings.Other than this error, Brydges' report to his masters in London faithfully depicted the doctrines taught by the Imam. He says, â€Å"The Religion they possess is Mohammedan according to the literal meaning of the Koran, following the Interpretations of Hambelly†. 18 Thirty-five years later, in 1834, Sir Harford Jones Brydges produced a far greater authoritative account of the Muwa idun in his A Brief History of the Wahauby. 19 We shall return to this document after looking at other developments during these thirty-five years. e Sacy: In 1805, we find the Frenchman de Sacy writing in his paper Observati ons sur les Wahhabites that the Muwa idun are â€Å"enemies of Islam†. He considered them to be an offshoot of the Qarmatians. 20 Rousseau: Four years later in 1809, another Frenchman by the name of Rousseau produced two short treatises 21 in which â€Å"it was positively asserted, that the Wahabys have a new religion, and that Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , pp. 33-46. i. e. `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar, the governor of `Uyaynah. 14 i. e. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab 15 i. e. `Uyaynah. 16 i. e.Dir`iyah, the first Saudi capital in the eighteenth century. It is now a ruin, lying on the outskirts of present day Riyadh 17 Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 41. 18 Ibid. , p. 42. By â€Å"Hambelly† he means the ? anbali School of Fiqh. 19 Harford Jones Brydges, An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty's Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. 20 M. A. Bari, â€Å"The early Wahha bis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th International Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967.It may be recalled here that the Qarmatians were a 9th – 12th century Isma`ili sect that sprang up in southern `Iraq and al-Hasa'. 21 J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d'une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives l'histoire et la litterature de l'Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. Idem. , â€Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191-198. 13 12 Page 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion although they acknowledge the Koran, yet they have entirely abolished the pilgrimage to Mekka†. 2 He claimed to derive part of his information from â€Å"le Chapelain de Saoud†. 23 Burckhardt, Brydges, 24 and other later Western writers reprimanded Rousseau for his obvious misinformation, the indignation arising over his claim to an authentic source of information. Corancez: The following year, i. e. in 1810, Corancez published his work in French. 25 Nashshabah says that after Burckhardt, â€Å"the next best Western account of the early history of the Wahhabis is Corancez's Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu'a la fin de 1809.Corancez, who was the French consul in Aleppo from 1800 to 1808, carefully checked the information he had been able to gather, and his informants were often first-hand observers; but his account of the life of the founder of the Wahhabi movement is inadequate. He ascribes Wahhabi expansion solely to the weakness and misrule of the Ottomans (whose authority in most of Arabia was at times merely nominal) and ignores the fervour stirred up by (ibn) `Abd al-Wahhab which, combined with the leadership of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud, must surely have been the main reason for their astonishing victories†. 6 Vincenzo Maurizi: During the following years, we find the writ ings of another Niebuhrian, 27 an Italian by the name of Vincenzo Maurizi alias Shaik Mansur. He amused his European audience with his History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat in 1819, which also devoted a considerable section to the Muwa idun. Maurizi, in his zeal to discredit the movement, overstepped even the limits of Niebuhr and painted a completely erroneous picture. To give a full flavour of his deliberate misreporting, we quote part of his narrative below. â€Å"About the middle of the last century (i. e. ighteenth century), a man named Abdulwahab, or Abdulvaab, a native of Hellah, or Ellaa, 28 on the banks of the Euphrates, pretended to have a vision, in which a flame appeared to issue from his body and burn to ashes all the neighbouring country; he confided the extraordinary circumstances which had befallen him to a Mullah, or Mulla, and the interpreter of the will of heaven declared that this sign portended the birth of a son, who should become the founder of a new religio n, and perform extraordinary actions. Soon afterwards the wife of Abdulvaab really became pregnant, and bore him a son, who was named Maam? . 29 [footnote in the text reads: This happened about the year 1757. ]. â€Å"The tribe of Neshdee, or Nescede, 30 to which the family belonged, soon imbibed the doctrines which appeared to be sanctioned by divine authority, and Abdulvaab, as general of J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley, 1831, p. II:103. 23 Ibid. , p. 103. 24 cf. ibid. , and Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 109,112. 25 L. A. O. de Corancez, Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu' la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. 26 Hisham A.Nashshabah, Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955. Unpublished M. A. thesis. p. 11. 27 About Niebuhr, Maurizi remarks â€Å"where the accurate and indefatigable Niebuhr could aff ord me any assistance, I have not hesitated to avail myself of it, and on the other hand I have occasionally remarked any alterations which have taken place since his days†. 17th page of his â€Å"Preface† to the History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819. 28 He probably means al-? illah in `Iraq. 29 i. e. Muhammad 30 i. e.Najdi. Page 6 22 The Problem of Historical Distortion an army and prophet of a rising sect, had an opportunity of spreading his political power, and the opinions of the new faith, which he considered himself commissioned to promulgate; while his son accompanied him, and was shown to all as the precious pledge of Almighty approbation towards the Vaabi religion. After Abdulvaabs death Maam? t succeeded in his command, but being blind, was obliged to employ, as his deputy, in all affairs of state except those relating to religion, a person named Abdullazis, 31 an adopted brother of his father's. This minister followed up the victories of the deceased p rophet with the greatest facility. As the first barriers of opposition had been already overthrown, it would be very difficult, and perhaps useless to name all the Seek 32 who resisted in arms the aggrandisement of the Vaabi, or the particular periods of their several conquests; but at the death of the chief last mentioned, 33 almost all the interior of the Arabian peninsula acknowledged their political and religious sway.Abdullazis succeeded to the supreme authority, and greatly extended the limits of their power, having sacked Mecca and Medina and destroyed the tomb of Mahomet, whom he declared to be a deceiver, and not a messenger of heaven; he also penetrated to the gates of Aleppo and Baghdad, massacred a caravan of Persian pilgrims on their route to visit the burial place of Alle, or Eli, 34 at Ellaa, 35 and plundered that depository of the accumulated wealth of ages†. 36 The historical errors are far too many to comment on in detail; but we shall make observations on so me salient distortions.The dichotomy between `Abd al-Wahhab and Mu? ammad ibn `Abd alWahhab is carried on from Niebuhr, but Maurizi goes a step further in proclaiming `Abd al-Wahhab to be a prophet, and giving Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab almost the position of a demi-god. Besides, he transfers the hometown of the family to al-? illah in `Iraq and moves the year of birth of Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab to 1757, the year when he contracted the bay`ah with ibn Sa`ud. The fallacy of a tribe called Najdi, of the existence of `Ali's tomb at al-? illah, of `Abd al-`Aziz being the adopted brother of the Imam's father, etc. eed hardly be commented upon. But the interesting development that must be noted is the so-called declaration by `Abd al-`Aziz of the Prophet Mu? ammad (p) being an impostor. Maurizi elaborates on this and other supposed beliefs of the â€Å"Vaabi† by quoting an answer which he claims to have been given to him by an envoy of Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz. It reads: â₠¬Å"We do not differ from other Musaleems, or Muselims (Musselmen) 37 except in thinking that Mahomet arrogated to himself too much authority; and, that the Koran was sent to the earth by the hands of angels, nd not of that man, who has even dared to falsify many of its doctrines; we also consider that the prophets, and especially Maamet iben Abdulvaab were beings like ourselves; and, therefore, not worthy of being addressed in prayer, although deserving of admiration and imitation for their piety and moral conduct†¦ † 38 Obviously, Maurizi could not have known more than a few words or phrases in Arabic, or else he would have rendered the envoy's answer truthfully. Instead, he has imposed hearsay and his own 31 32 Presumably `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. . e. shaykhs. 33 i. e. Maamet, the son of Abdulva b. 34 i. e. `Ali ibn Abi Talib. 35 i. e. al-? illah in `Iraq. 36 Maurizi, , op. cit. , pp. 36-38. 37 i. e. Muslims. 38 Maurizi, op. cit. , p. 40. Page 7 The Proble m of Historical Distortion assumptions into the mouth of the envoy. His lack of knowledge of Arabic is reflected also in the fact that he misconstrues `Abd Allah ibn Sa`ud, the Sa`udi amir after Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz as â€Å"Abdullahazis† (`Abd al-`Aziz). Similarly, in the last passage cited, the envoy must have said â€Å"the prophets, and especially Mu? mmad ibn `Abd Allah were beings like ourselves †¦ † which Maurizi took to mean Maamet iben Abdulvaab. Maurizi's account even disgraces fiction. J. L. Burckhardt: John Lewis Burckhardt was the first to bring a balanced view of the movement to the European audience. The epistle of Brydges in 1799 was not a public document. Thus Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys published in 1831 was a turning point in the Western understanding of the Imam and his followers. This work goes into fair amount of detail about the movement.Burckhardt dispelled many of the misunderstandings that had been current in the Wes t as a result of the earlier writings. The very first thing he set out to correct was that: â€Å"The doctrines of Abd el Wahab were not those of a new religion; his efforts were directed only to reform abuses in the followers of Islam, and to disseminate the pure faith among Bedouins; who although Muselmans, were equally ignorant of religion, as indifferent about all the duties which it prescribed†. 39 Comparing the Muwa idun to the Ottoman Turks, he says: â€Å"Not a single new precept was to be found in the Wahaby ode. Abd el Wahab took as his sole guide the Koran and the Sunne (or the laws formed upon the traditions of Mohammed); and the only difference between this sect and the orthodox Turks, however improperly so termed, is, that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which the others neglect, or have ceased altogether to observe. To describe, therefore, the Wahaby religion, would be to recapitulate the Muselman faith; and to show in what points this sect differs fr om the Turks, would be to give a list of all the abuses of which the latter are guilty†. 0 One can quote Burckhardt at length to show his positive attitude which led him to a fairly objective analysis of the creed and practice of the Muwa idun, and the reasons why Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab â€Å"was misunderstood both by his friends and his enemies†. 41 The former took offense at his seeming attacks on the Prophet (p) and the latter saw a political threat in his preaching; thus leading to an intentional distortion of the facts. Despite this objectivity in Burckhardt, one cannot but comment on the Western slant of his perception.The usage of words often has a psychological effect on the reader. For instance, Burckhardt, writing about the Imam says that â€Å"being convinced by what he observed during his (b. `Abd al-Wahhab's) travels, that the primitive (emphasis ours) faith of Islam, or Mohammedanism, had become totally corrupted and obscured by abuses,†¦ †Å". 42 The value judgment involved in his use of the word â€Å"primitive† is apparent. The Western notion that the progression of thought and ideas essentially leads to the advancement of civilization is a result of their philosophical heritage.The Islamic notion, that the absolute is derived solely through the process of divine revelation in history and not through cognitive, intuitive or perceptive processes which are bound by the limitations of the human mind, stands markedly in contradistinction to the Western assumptions. Thus, while the 39 40 Burckhardt, op. cit. , II:99. Ibid. , II:112 41 Ibid. , II:99. 42 Ibid. , II:96. Page 8 The Problem of Historical Distortion Muslim (including Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab) would view the life of theProphet as a supreme achievement in the history of man, the Western thinker would regard it as a ‘primitive' stage in the life of man. However, it is remarkable that if one is to compare Burckhardt with the later Orientalists, he was far ahead of his own time in this respect. His value judgements are very limited. Hitti, a century later, echoes the same words that â€Å"he (b. `Abd al-Wahhab) himself determined to purge it (Islam) and restore it to its primitive strictness†. 43 Hitti goes further though in regarding the bay`ah of 1757 as â€Å"another case of marriage between religion and the sword†. 4 The subtle intrusion of value judgements are scattered profusely throughout the writings even of the socalled ‘sympathetic' Western Orientalists like Nicholson, 45 Wilfrid Cantwell Smith (d. 2000), 46 von Grunebaum (1909-1972), 47 and H. A. R. Gibb (d. 1971) 48 not to speak of the others. Andrew Crichton: The next stage in the history of the Western biographies of the Imam was set by Andrew Crichton with his publication of History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern in 1833. This is the first time that we see a Western writer composing a secondary work on the Muwa dun based solely on other Weste rn writings. Having noted Burckhardt's caution against the misconceptions floating around, Crichton relied primarily on Burckhardt, Corancez and Mengin in particular. 49 Since he has nothing original to offer, we turn to his usage of some of the material at hand. For example, after outlining the beliefs and practices of the Muwa idun, he states â€Å"They did not, however, so far outstrip themselves of all superstition as to abolish the ceremonies of ablution and the Meccan pilgrimage, or even those of kissing the black stone and throwing stones at the devil†. 0 To start with, this reveals the author's ignorance about Islam, it's beliefs, practices and rituals. Secondly, it is surprising that the author cannot even conceive of non-Christian rituals that reflect and lead to cleanliness, unity of man, and submission and commitment to God. By calling these rituals â€Å"superstition†, the author has obviously passed a normative judgment that is reflective of the Judaeo-Ch ristian tradition. Sir Harford Jones Brydges re-visited: Chronologically, this brings us once again to Sir Harford Jones Brydges.This worthy civil servant of the colonialist British Empire had little that was new to add to the known facts of the Imam's life as described by Burckhardt. He published his Brief History of the Wahauby, in 1834 after perusal of Burckhardt's work. The only point on which the two disagreed was whether Mu? ammad ibn alWahhab was the father-in-law or the son-in-law of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. Regardless of this dispute, what Brydges has to offer as an interpretation of this relationship between the two is as follows: P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972, p. 40. Ibid. 45 R. A. Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969, p. 466. 46 W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957, pp. 48-51. 47 G. von Grunebaum, â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essay s in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 185-236. 48 H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972, pp. 26-32. 49 Andrew Crichton, History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 1833, p. II:190.See footnote. 50 Ibid. , II:290. 44 43 Page 9 The Problem of Historical Distortion â€Å"†¦ and that in consequence of this connexion, though Abdulwahaub remained the book, Mahommed Ibn Saoud became the sword of the sect†. 51 This is the prelude to what we have been hearing from Orientalists like Hitti and others mentioned earlier. The only difference is that while Brydges was a part of the colonialist establishment and had a political axe to grind, the Orientalists are a part of the neo-colonialist imperialism that breeds Orientalist research. In other respects, i. . those that cover other aspects of the history of the Muwa idun, their administration, etc. , Brydges' book complements the w ork of Burckhardt. W. G. Palgrave: Moving beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, we come to William Gifford Palgrave, a servant of the British crown in India, steeped in the Christian tradition. By his time, the facts of the movement were well known; it was now the time for the growth of interpretation of these facts. Palgrave published two works, namely Eastern and Central Arabia (1866) and Essays on Eastern Questions (1872).Wahhabism had by this time become a great threat to the British Empire in India and elsewhere, and the crown was out to discredit the movement not only in the British public eye, but also among the Muslims residing in the British colonies. The latter purpose was not difficult to achieve due to the existing propaganda against the Muwa idun by the Ottoman Turks. Thus, in true service of British colonialism and displaying his loyalty to the missionary cause, Palgrave tried to paint the movement as a reaction to the pressure of the Christian West.He says â₠¬Å"The great reactionary movement, the ‘Revival', originated where scarce a spark of life had been left, by the too-famous ‘Abd-el-Wahhab, in the land of Nejd, has gradually but surely extended itself over the entire surface and through all the length and depth of Islam; while the ever increasing pressures of the Christian, or, at least, non-Mahometan, West, has intensified the ‘fanatical' tendency, even where it has modified its special direction.For ‘Islam' is a political not less than a religious whole;†¦ † 52 This was a rejoinder to the alarm sounded by W. W. Hunter (who was in Her Majesty's Bengal Civil Service) in his book The Indian Musalmans. 53 By this time, the British had already successfully faced Sayyid A? mad Shahid (d. 1831), Titu Mir and the War of 1857. With these major setbacks, a wave of strong ‘Wahhabi' feelings had swept the Muslims of Bengal and Northern India, hoping to regain their lost position.Therefore, it was essen tial for the British cause to subvert this obvious threat. Apart from the political motivations for his analysis, his Christian missionary zeal and hatred for Islam drove Palgrave to write as follows: â€Å"The Wahhabee reformer formed the design of putting back the hour-hand of Islam to its starting-point; and so far he did well, for that hand was from the first meant to be fixed. Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain.Sterile like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme Original in all that constitutes true life – for life is love, participation, and progress, and of these the Coranic Deity has none – it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all developement. To borrow the forcible words of Lord Houghton, the 51 52 Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 107. W. G. Palgrave, Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan & Co. , 1872, p. 115. 53 W. W. Hunter, The Indian Musalmans, 1871. Page 10 The Problem of Historical Distortion wri tten book† is there the â€Å"dead man's hand†, stiff and motionless; whatever savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy and defection. â€Å"But Christianity with its living and loving God, Begetter and Begotten, Spirit and Movement, nay more, a Creator made creature, the Maker and the made existing in One, a Divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted gradation and degree from the most intimate union far off to the faintest irradiation, though all that It has made for love and governs in love;†¦ † 54 Mu? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab is the example for him par excellence of the true image of Islam, stagnant against a dynamic Christianity, backward looking against the advancing Christianity, lifeless against the living Christianity, and with a Sterile God against a living and loving Christian God who begets his only begotten Son becoming the Creator and creature, the Maker and the made all in One. Palgrave combined the missionary and the colonia list mentality in a perfect blend that was to reflect in the Orientalist attitude during the century to follow. He becomes the precursor to the likes of Samuel Zwemer, 55 E. Calverley, C. M.Doughty (1843-1926), 56 T. E. Lawrence (1888-1935), 57 and others. We end our analysis with Palgrave. Doubtless, the approach of the Orientalist has improved vastly during this century, as we see in the writings of George Rentz, for example. 58 However, the Orientalists of the latter portion of the nineteenth century, and until recently, those of the twentieth century have faithfully followed the tradition of the likes of Palgrave. CONCLUSION: For the sake of betterment and advancement of the civilization of man, we go back to our opening remarks and question the Western Judaeo-Christian approach towards the civilizations of the East.Rejecting the self-centeredness and particularity practiced by the Judaeo-Christian West, and in order to approximate the Islamic universality, we must shed our feat hers and appreciate the traditions and civilizations of others within their own framework and assumptions. The plurality of this small world, shrunk by the advance of technology, necessitates a renunciation of selfishness and oppression of the weak, at least in intellectual exercises. In the present context, that is of our approach towards history, we are now bound to accept the facts as such and interpret them for the betterment of mankind.It is obvious that personal biases cannot be eliminated in their totality. The basic assumptions must remain. Regardless, this should not lead us to a distortion of facts. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab served an important purpose to a significant population of mankind, and has also caused grievance to many. In light of this we cannot justify either veneration or denunciation of this man, who devoted his life for a simple cause. W. G. Palgrave, Narrative of a Year's Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan & Co. , 1866, p. I:372. 5 Samuel M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906. 56 Charles Montagu Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. 57 T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Idem. , Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 58 George Rentz, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movement in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Cf. also Idem. , â€Å"Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. y Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66. And Idem. , â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284. Page 11 54 The Problem of Historical Distortion Instead, his contribution to the development of civilization must be appreciated in its true perspective. The most important c onclusion is the recognition of the distortion of facts, deliberate or otherwise, by the Western colonialists, their functionaries, their missionaries, and the Orientalists who were none of these.Their aims were multifarious. While the colonialists and their functionaries strove to maintain their political supremacy and to keep the Muslim population subdued within the colonies, the missionaries tried their utmost to distort Islam to the extent possible hoping to gain converts. It was often that the aims of the colonialists and the missionaries though seemingly different were in fact the same. Hence, they worked hand in glove throughout and distorted the facts of history to make their own ends meet. Page 12 The Problem of Historical DistortionBIBLIOGRAPHY Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 M. A. Bari, Harford Jones Brydges, â€Å"The early Wahhabis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th Int ernational Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967. An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty's Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley, 1831, p.II:103. Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu'a la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 1833 Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. An abridged version of this work was also published under the title Wanderings In Arabia, London, Duckworth, 1908, 1926 Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972 â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essays in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 85-236 History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972 The Indian Musalmans, 1871 â€Å"A Diplomat's R eport on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, III:677, col. 2. Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819 A review of Niebuhr's life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955.Unpublished M. A. thesis. Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969 Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. into English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison & Son, 1792. Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan & Co. , 1872 Narrative of a Year's Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan & Co. , 1866 Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movement in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, M cGill University, Montreal, Canada. â€Å"Wahhabism and SaudiArabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. by Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66 â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284 Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d'une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives a l'histoire et a la litterature de l'Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. J. L. Burckhardt, L. A. O. de Corancez, Andrew Crichton, Charles Montagu Doughty, H. A. R. Gibb, G. von Grunebaum, P. K.Hitti, W. W. Hunter, Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, Henri Laoust, T. E. Lawrence, Idem. , Vincenzo Maurizi, V. B. Mehta, Hisham A. Nashshabah, R. A. Nicholson, C. M. Niebuhr, W. G. Palgrave, W. G. Palgrave, George Rentz, Idem. , Idem. , J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Page 13 The Problem of Historical Distortion Idem. , W. C. Smith, Samuel M. Zwemer, â₠¬Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191198. Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957 Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906 Page 14