Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma

Identifying the Problem A code of ethics is very important in the professional lives of people in different professions. However, a code of ethics cannot replace human minds that have the ability to question, judge, experience emotions, and even act depending on different situations. Ethical codes cannot replace the struggles that people in helping professions like counseling go through with simple quick solutions.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The ethical struggles are sometimes unique situations, puzzling questions and demanding personal responsibilities that call for practical solutions not clearly stated in the codes of ethics. Sometimes conflicts arise between unclear codes of ethics and the need for practical solutions thereby presenting dilemmas. The case of Wilma, a counselor in a community agency, and Donna who is a client suffering from an anxiety disorder and panic attack is a real dilemma. Wilma discusses information that is considered private by Donna in a public place. The right to privacy implies that the decision of information such as opinions, emotions and personal data that someone is willing to share with other people is at an individual’s discretion. There is also a problem of breach of confidentiality on Wilma’s side. The code of professional ethics requires Wilma to keep the information she has on Donna a secret (American Counseling Association, 2005). The code of ethics applies even if the information seems harmless. There is a moral obligation by Wilma to ensure that Donna adheres to her treatment plan and gets better from her current situation hence the dilemma as stated in article 7.B.1 (South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulation, 2006). The simple fact that Wilma makes an inquiry on Donna’s progress in the presence of another person is a breach of privacy. Wilma’s frustration with Donna’s laxity with the homework she is given during the therapy session causes her to ask Donna about the homework. The context in which the confrontation occurs is wrong as both are in a public place. Furthermore, Wilma is not alone since she is in the company of a friend. Perhaps Donna’s visits to the community agency counseling center are a secret and the information divulged to anyone else may lead to further complications especially now that she is being helped overcome her condition of panic and anxiety. There is a possibility that Wilma is the reason Donna is not able to complete all her homework. They may be having problems such as a personality clash or a situation where Wilma is not competent enough to handle Donna’s case. A case of fidelity presents itself in this situation. The situation is a combination of an ethical and a clinical issue. An ethical issue arises due to the breach of the right to privacy a nd confidentiality. A clinical issue, on the other hand, comes about as the context in which the confrontation occurs may be a precipitating factor in a panic attack episode. Donna may get a panic attack as a result of the counselor’s indiscriminate behavior.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Applying the ACA Code of Ethics Wilma’s conduct is evidently inappropriate according to the American Counselors’ Association (ACA) Code of Ethics. Section B.I.b code of ethics on respect for privacy states that, â€Å"Counselors respect client rights to privacy. Counselors solicit private information from clients only when it is beneficial to the counseling process† (ACA, 2005, p. 8). At the specific moment, there is no therapeutic process in play hence a breach of ethics. In section B subsection 1.c, there is a code concerning respect for confidentiality, which re quires â€Å"counselors do not share confidential information without client consent or without sound legal or ethical justification† (American Counseling Association, 2005, p. 8). Wilma shares Donna’s issues from a personal perspective. The concern does not appear therapeutic since it is out of frustration that she chooses to check on her client’s progress and not as part of the therapy sessions requirements (American Counseling Association, 2005, p.8). According to section B in subsection 3.c., the code is clear on the setting in which to divulge confidential information. It is in a public setting that Wilma makes her inquiry from Donna. Donna is a waitress in an eatery that is obviously a public place. The sessions are meant to take place in a private place where the client does not feel intimidated or have feelings of insecurity with regard to personal information in possession of the therapist. The code states that â€Å"counselors discuss confidential inf ormation only in settings in which they can reasonably ensure client privacy† (American Counseling Association, 2005, p. 8). ACA code of ethics in section C subsection 2.a requires that therapists practice according to their limits of competence. Their competence is established by things such as the counselors’ education levels, supervised experience and necessary credentials. Nature and Dimensions of the Dilemma As mentioned earlier, the situation between Wilma and Donna is an ethical dilemma. This is a pure dilemma as the ACA codes of ethics require that Wilma maintains confidentiality unless otherwise stated. Nevertheless, an obligation stated in the principle of beneficence binds Wilma to ensure that Donna gets well. The fact that Wilma is a counselor in a community agency also presents a possible challenge that she may not be competent enough to handle cases of anxiety and panic attack disorders yet Donna needs help to overcome her current condition. Potential Cour ses of Action There is a need for Wilma as a professional counselor to follow strict guidelines as required by the ethical decision making model. At this stage, she must identify potential action plans to solve the ethical issue presented. There may be a need to be very strict with Donna, therefore, undermining her right to autonomy. She may also choose to let Donna go if Donna is not willing to accomplish her therapeutic tasks since Donna’s well-being is largely dependent on how well she accomplishes her tasks.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Dilemmas in The Case of Wilma specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, failing to accomplish these tasks is synonymous to time wasting. A possible alternative is following Donna to her place of work and checking on her progress in private. This is likely to help her accomplish the therapeutic tasks required to make Donna get well. Wilma also has a choice of changing the therapeutic approach she uses on Donna as a new approach may yield better results. There is a chance to refer the client as Wilma may consider Donna’s case as that which is beyond her competence level. This is in accordance to chapter 36 article 7 section B.10 of South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulations (2006, p. 21), which states â€Å"when a professional counselor determines an inability to be of professional assistance to a potential or existing client, the counselor must, respectively, not initiate the counseling relationship or immediately terminate the relationship. In either event, the counselor must suggest appropriate alternatives and be knowledgeable about referral resources so that a satisfactory referral can be initiated. If the client declines the referral, the counselor shall not be obligated to continue the relationship.† Evaluating Potential Courses of Action There are possible repercussions that may arise du e to the course of action taken. The repercussions should be considered in detail for the best course of action to be applied. Since Donna has a legal right to autonomy, her freedom of choice should at all times be respected even by her therapist. The respect holds even when the choices she makes have little or no sense, for instance, the choice of not completing her therapeutic homework. There is a possibility that Donna may take actions against Wilma if her autonomy is undermined. The actions may include reporting Wilma to her seniors or even taking legal action. Wilma’s plan to release Donna from her therapeutic care may also have consequences. The consequence of this action is failure to maintain the client’s welfare to the highest possible level that is a legal duty of the counselor. Following Donna to her place of work may present a legal issue. This action can be interpreted as stalking. The final possible plan of action is referring the client. However, this ac tion may also have its shortcomings. The suggestion may not go well with Donna for reasons such as fear of the unknown.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More She can also interpret her case as so hopeless that she cannot get help elsewhere having failed in the first instance. Donna may also experience feelings of rejection since she may not consider the referral objectively and might take it personally. In such a case, it is important to let Donna know that she is special and unique and that she needs someone who understands her better. Implementing the Course of Action The most appropriate course of action in the Donna and Wilma case is to refer the client (Donna). Perhaps there are reasonable explanations why Donna fails to do her homework. These reasons may be beyond Wilma as a professional counselor. This then requires Wilma to accept that her competence is limited. Therefore, she should allow Donna to seek help elsewhere. The referral is in line with the ethical principle of veracity. The principle of veracity is the counselors’ honesty in accepting their limitations as professionals. Wilma should be careful to consider all c onsequences the situation may bring to her as a professional (Akfert, 2013). There is a need to explore all options carefully as referring Donna might bring up additional ethical issues. Wilma needs to do a critical evaluation of the decision to refer Donna and check if it is fair to do so. Wilma must consider how comfortable she can be with the decision if the same is suggested for her. She should be comfortable recommending this solution to another counselor in a similar dilemma. She should also consider the universality test, which is a necessary condition for approval of the course of action taken (Akfert, 2013). The universality test entails how well the issue goes down with the press and the community at large. The action should receive positive publicity should the information leak out to the press. Making a Follow-up The final stage in the ethical decision making model is making a follow- up. Wilma should follow up Donna’s case to check whether her referral yields the anticipated outcome. Counselors handle an array of diverse of circumstances and each clinician has his own distinct style of handling the different situations. Therefore, Wilma should accept her shortcomings in handling Donna’s case and resolving the dilemma. References Akfert, S. K. (2013). Ethical dilemmas experienced by psychological counselors working at different institutions and their attitudes and behaviors s a response to these dilemmas. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 12(3), 1806-1812. American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA Code of Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.counseling.org/Resources/aca-code-of-ethics.pdf South Carolina Department of Labor Licensing and Regulation. (2006). 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The Kerala Model Of Development Economics Essay

The Kerala Model Of Development Economics Essay Sustainable development is a pattern of resourses use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for the future generation (WCED, 1987, p.43). Introduction Kerala has become a model for social development with limiting improvement in an industrialisation sector. Furthermore, Kerala has undermined the broadly accepted idea that the improvement in the standard of living of people can only be achieved after the successful, rapid and steady economic development. Kerala Model of Development took on the theory that economic growth is the only way to meet basic needs of people in poverty, to raise them above poverty, and generate employment. (World development vol.29, no  ², pp.601-617,2001 The new kerala model: lessons for sustainable development rene veron). 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The fertility rate is just 1.7 births per woman lower than in Sweden. The fact is that Kerala is also socially and politically different from the rest of India. While the other states in India refashioning itself in the image of western lifestyle and economy, Kerala remains a communist state with very strong influence of trade unions, and more or less centralize politics. Also Muslim and Christian minorities co-exist peacefully with Hindus, wh ich make this state outstanding of all India. On the other hand despite large capacity of natural resources, Kerala suffers from lack of the industrial investment from international and Indian companies, mostly for fear of the states difficult trade unions, pro-union courts, and high minimum wages. As a consequence Kerala has the highest unemployment rates among Indians state. It is estimates that in 2003 unemployment were as high as 25 percent ( K. C Zachriah 2005 p.21). In addition, Kerala has large budget deficits. According to Karalas budget report from 2005 country debt was Rs.41, 878 crore, which was 39.1 percent of the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) One of the main successful stories of Keralas development is education. Kerala has been able to reduce the regional and gender gaps in education, literacy and enrolment at all level of education. More than 94 percent of the rural population has access to primary schools within a distance of one kilometre, while 98 per cent of population has got one school within a distance of two kilometres. Furthermore 96 percent of the population is served by an upper primary school within a travel distance of 3 kilometres and one-fourth by a secondary school within 2 kilometers. Nearly 98 percent of the rural population has the facility for secondary education within 6 to 8 km (Najith Kumar, K.K. George, 2009, p. 55). Also facilities of higher education and technical education are accessible to rural students in reasonable distance. Another aspect of Keralas education system is presents of the non-formal education institutions, which are offering courses. Interesting fact is that Keralas students counts on one- fifth of the whole population. Also the education system employs 18 percent of the population. The number of teachers is equivalent to about 50 per cent of the total number of workers in the registered factories. The reasons laid on the government no- fees policy for primary and secondary education, as well as low fees for the higher education and technical education institutions. Additionally, easy and highly subsidised transport system for students, especially from rural areas, makes the education more affordable. In addition Kerala has been able to achieve gender equity in education system. Nearly half of the students in lower primary classes are girls. The female literacy in Kerala at 86 per cent is far above the all-India rate of 39 percent, and as high as in many developed countries. For example in China the female literacy is 93 percent placing Kerala in close position considering the country population. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html On the other hand, rural female literacy rate in Kerala is higher than every individual province in China (Amartya Sen, 1994T 2.pdf). Furthermore, the number of girls entering education, except technical and professional education, is much higher than the boys (p.38 2pdf). Education contributes in many ways to Kerala development. Particularly womens education has played important role in declining the mortality rates. Educated women are better able to take charge of their lives. For example, the typical Keralas woman gets married at the 22 age, compared to 18 in the rest of India. On an average, women with at least an elementary education give a birth to two children less than uneducated women. Whats more, they also want a good education for their children, particularly their daughters. On the other hand, despite progress in gender equality in education, violence against women increases particularly domestic violence. A study conducted by INCLEN and ICRW on domestic violence in Kerala found that as high as 62.,3 percent of the women in Kerala are subjected to physical torture and mental harassment as compared to 37 percent and 35.5 percent at the national India level. (ICRW 2002). There are increasing reports of dowry related violence, rape and other abuse against women in Kerala (Womens Commission, 1999). This is fallow by reports of poor mental health with increase of the cases of depression found among the women. The other notable aspect of Keralas gender equality is little participation and representation women in politics, political parties and the trade union. Out of 144 seats in the State assembly, the number of women has never been more than 13, what is 10 percent of the all sates. (Sakhi women resource centre, The situation of women in the state: the gender paradox). Questions are being raised whether public and private expenditure to sustain educational activity on such a massive scale has really generated returns in terms of economic development and employment generation. Definitely it generated in human development. The fact is that service sector including education is the fastest growing sector in Kerala economy. Its share improved steadily from 36.4 percent in 1980- 81 to 40.1 percent in 1990-91 and further to 45.4 percent 1997-98 (EPW Research Foundation, 2003). Second, the biggest achievement of Kerala Model of Development is control of the population growth. In the seventies, the growth rate in population declined from 2.33 percent in the sixties to 1.76 percent. In the eighties the growth rate in population comes down to 1.34 percent. In the nineties it was just 0.91 percent. Birth rate had come down from 25.0 during 1974-80 to 20.3 during 1984-90 and to 17.1 during 1994-2001. S Irudaya accented that the Total Fertility Rate declined from 2.9 to 2.0 and to 1.7 during this period (S.Irudaya Rajan and Sabu Aliyar, 2004). It had impact on family transition, the number of children in a household. The two-child family is the social norm here now, said M.N. Sivaram, the Trivandrumcapital of Keralarepresentative of the International Family Planning Association. Even among illiterate women we find its true. When we send our surveyors out, people are embarrassed to say if they have more than two kids. Seven or eight years ago, the norm was three c hildren and we thought we were doing pretty well. Now its two, and among the most educated people, its one. (Dynamics of Change in Keralas Education System:The Socio-economic and Political Dimensions K.K.George Parvathy Sunaina Working paper No.12 ). Also according to current data, the expectation of life at birth of males is 71.2 years, against an Indian average of 59.1 years, and the expectation of life at birth of females is 73.7 years, against an Indian average of 60.4 years. Keralas access to affordable health care and education has huge impact on birth and mortality rate of the population. Birth control is wildly accessible. There is a dispensary every few kilometres where IUDs and other forms of birth control are freely available. The health clinics provide cheap health care for children, programs for mothers like breast-feeding, and a state-supported nutrition program for pregnant and new mothers. For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered what place Kerala among developed countries. Kearla Model of Development shows also improvement in living conditions. According to K. R Nayar 47 per cent of the rural population and 74 per cent of the urban population are covered by protected water supply. The dependence on surface water for drinking is less than one per cent in the state. More than four- fifth of the people have access to water supply within their own premises. The share of people who have to travel for more than half a kilometre for drinking water is just 1.7 per cent in the rural areas and 0.4 per cent in the urban areas (K.R.Nayar, 1997). Important factor to Keralas social development was land reform, which completely transformed landownership system, and ended janmi system. It also protected tenants, and ended system of rack-renting. It shifted house and land ownership to poor families. Furthermore, in 1989 the government initiated the group-farming program, which provides families with financial and technical assistance. The program was expected to be a key to reduction of production costs and raise efficiency of paddy cultivation. But despite this it seems that Keralas agriculture is today neither a life activity of the families nor a important economic activity, except for a limited number of plantation crops, and rubber. The radical changes in Keralas agrarian economy have also led to transformations in the nature of agricultural activities, employment, and lifestyles. Firstly, today the average farmer in Kerala is not engaged personally in most agricultural activities. Secondly, a substantial number of farming f amilies have non-agricultural sources of income. Instead the income comes mainly from abroad remittance or employment in Keralas highly occupied service sector, like education, public sector, etc. Secondly, agricultural, traditional economic activities, like small fishing businesses, are no longer seen as an economically virtual provider of income, an adequate return of investment. Thirdly, the existence of labour shortages together with high unemployment raised the perception that these jobs are economically worthless. Final and probably more important aspect is the low status of irksome jobs, which it seems to be no longer culturally desirable option for a young and educated generation. As a consequence land in Kerala doesnt have value for an agricultural use, but only for residential needs and as an indicator of social position, as well as a resource of the safe investment. It seems Kerala agriculture does not contributing in major way to the country economy. The share of agricul ture in NSDP has come down from 39.1percent in 1980-81 to 35.7 percent in 1990-91. It came down further to 30.6 percent in 1997-98 and still dropping down (Pillai N. India 05 p. 28 -31). The state is heavily dependent on imports for meeting its food requirements in addition some traditional occupation in agriculture is disappearing due to lack of interest and market competition. 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The banking system, particularly growths study mostly thanks to Gulf remittance. Between 2000 and 2001 Kerala had 9,8 banks per 100-sq km of area, much above all India 2.1 per 100-sq km. Investment in communication system brought Kerala to the leading state in India. In 2002, Keralas telephone concentration was 85 per 1000 population, within 71 in the rural areas. In addition, Keralas transport, which has huge impact on population accessibility to education and health care, shows impressive growth. On the other hand, power sector suffers on improvement. For egzample, in 2001 only 70,2 percent of rural household had complete electrification (Pillai N. India 05 p. 28 -31). The fact is that Kerala Model of Development have not improvement or little in others development indicators. For example, Keralas Model is failing in creating job Market. Unemployment is very high. Though there was growth in NSDP during the nineties, it was actually a jobless growth. The employment stretch for Kerala for the period 1993-94 to 1999-00 was the lowest among the major states in India. While the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of the State grew by 5.5 percent per annum during this period, employment grew by just 0.7 percent. As a result, unemployment rate of Kerala increased from 15.5 percent in 1993-94 to 21.0 percent in 1999-2000. The rate of unemployment in Kerala was almost three times the all India rate. (The Economic Survey, 2003-04). Unemployment problem in Kerala is largely a problem of the educated population More than one-fourth of the rural educated and one-fifth of the urban educated were unemployed in the State. Unemployment rate among the educated perso ns above fifteen years was much higher than the rate for the general population in this age group. The problem was much more acute among educated women. Nearly half of the educated women in the rural areas were unemployed. In the urban areas, more than 40 percent of the educated women were unemployed (B.A.Prakash and M.P.Abraham, 2004). Also work seekers in 80 percent had qualifications of SSLC and above. The proportion of this category of work seekers was increasing in the nineties (Economic Review, 2003). Among the professional and technical work seekers, the largest group was that of ITI certificate holders (68.5 percent). The next significant group was that of diploma holders in engineering and technology (23.9 percent). The growth in unemployment among the educated is not surprising as the employment in the organized sector grew only by 7.7 percent between 1990 and 2002. The public sector employment showed only marginal increase during the above period (1.6 percent). Though gro wth in private sector employment (15.3 percent) was relatively high, it was inadequate to offset the near stagnation in public sector employment The increasing unemployment of the educated group rises the question if is any point in government spending more funds on education, which leads only to higher unemployment. Instead Kerala government should spend more investment on creating for them job market and create education structure according to the market needs. On the other hand, despite large scale unemployment particularly among the educated population, the private demand for higher education has been increasing. It seems that high unemployment and competition among qualified population looking for jobs has led to the upgrading qualifications standards. Higher skills and qualifications, or even escalation of qualifications, are see as a securing future job. Easy access to the higher educational institutions, affordable school fee and the low transportation cost made it possible. Another factor that increases the demand for higher education, despite low rate of employment among educated people, is the relatively lower waiting period and higher compensation for better-qualified candidates (E.T.Mathew, 1995). Even though Kerala has a large unemployment, this region is still an economic migration for many unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled labours, mostly from neighbouring states like Tamilnadu, Maharashtra, Orissa or West Bengal. The migrants are replacing Keralas own leaving population on a hunt for work abroad. The way, which Kerala deals with the unemployment and lack of industrialisation is economical migration it population. According to K, C.Zachariah Migration has provided the single most dynamic factor in the other wise dismal scenario of Kerala in the last quarter of the 20th Century. It is one of the positive outcomes of the Kerala Model of Development. In Kerala, migration must have contributed more to poverty alleviation than any other factor including agrarian reforms, trade union activities and social welfare legislation (K.C.Zachariah, E.T.Mathew and S.Irudaya Rajan, 2000). The number of Kerala emigrants to other countries looking for a job increased from 230,740 in 1982 to 637,103 in 1992 and to 1844,023 in 2003. The annual remittances from the emigrants increased from Rs.13, 652 crores in 1999 to Rs.18, 465 crores in 2003 and still reasing. the remittances to Kerala from its emigrants to other countries alone were equivalent to 22-25 percent of NSDP (K.C.Zachariah and S.Iruda ya Rajan, 2004).The remittances had made tremendous impact on income distribution among regions, communities and religious groups, as well as made impact on poverty reduction. Today Keralas economy is linked more to countries outside particularly to the Gulf countries than to some of the regions within the country. Both the labor markets abroad and the remittances of the emigrants have influenced on Kerala income. Average annual remittances ranged from Rs. 536 crores during 1980-85 to Rs. 10,835 crores during 1995-2000. As a percentage of the State Domestic Product (SDP) remittances constituted, on an average, around 11 percent since early eighties to the early nineties (till the end of the fixed exchange rate system). During the nineties it increased to around 21 per cent (K P Kannan, K S Hari 2000). Today Kerala economy structure relay mostly on remintence. The share of agriculture in NSDP has come down from 39.1percent in 1980-81 to 35.7 percent in 1990-91. It came down further to 30.6 percent in 1997-98. The share of industry also came down, though only marginally. Its share came down from 24.5 percent to 24.2 percent and further to 24.0 percent during the period. Service sector was the fastest growing sector in Kerala economy. Its share improved steadily from 36.4 percent in 1980- 81 to 40.1 percent in 1990-91 and further to 45.4 percent 1997-98 (EPW Research Foundation, 2003). Conclusion Keralas development Achived majore success in human developmen like mnimum social security, food security, minimum gender differences in education, as well as easy and affordable access to health care. Also significantly, Kerala distributed all the achievements relatively equally across urban-rural areas, between man and women, and low caste-high caste populations. In this respect Kerala does better than the rest of India, and some of developed countries. The existence of subsidised education has provided a fair degree for all social groups. On the economic front too, there has been great achievements in laying out transport and communication, banking system. On the other hand, Kerala Model is failing in providing equality between women and man in terms of jobs and wage rate. But the biggest flaw in this model is creating high unemployment, especially among educated population. Investing only in education sector without creating job market placed Kerala among country of great risk of floating high skills population out of the country. The increasing unemployment of the educated rises the question if is any point in government spending more funds on education, which leads only to higher unemployment. Instead Karalla government should spend more on investment at economy, agriculture, and industrialisation. Especially that economic migration to Gulf, high source of the state romances, facing the major competition from much cheaper labour from others poor Asian countries. Until now the remittances contribute to inflation, but do not help to resolve the fiscal problems. Furthermore it seems the human development could raise duo to Keralas history, and also mainly staying on the communist road of the politics. Communist government put more investments on social sectors like education and health neglecting mostly industry, and except land reform, agriculture. Another aspect of the success of the model is the Kerala economy exists and functions as an integral part of t he Indian economy and politics. Next aspect which should Karalla government deal with is that in a changing India, doing business is increasingly important and strong union and lack of flexibility makes impossible to invest by international corporation. As economic liberalization takes place in other states of India and tariffs are being lowered, as well as subsidized economy ended by turning to free-market enterprise and wooing multinational industries Kerala seems to be less attractive for potential investors. Kaerala does suffer from great fiscal deficitperhaps the problem laid down to a generous minimum wage; one of the best distribution systems in the country, leading to a network of shops that sell everything from rice to batteries at subsidized prices; and a land-reform program. Definitely Karela has been transforming itself from extremely poor state, ridden with caste and class conflicts and burdened by high birth, infant-mortality, and population grow rates into social- democratic state with low birth, and high leve of litratucy. But in terms of present economical situation the social development could be challenging to sustain steady. . There is a high road of development where it is possible to have growth with poverty reduction through job creation, reduced in-equality including gender in-equality and sustainable social development. The possibility of success of this growth depends on the kinds of jobs one creates. It also depends upon making, strengthening and improving policies based on gender equality for social developments. Sri Lanka has not done very well in this path, by way of growth. It is seen that in this path there is growing inequality, worsening gender indicators, and the potential for worsening social development. if social development does not generate growth and employment opportunities, what will be the major implication of such a situation which can even create an explosive situation. The development experience of Kerala poses many challenges for the development of Kerala in the new millennium. (jacket) http://www.vedamsbooks.com/no55611.htm That social development becomes un- sustainable with out economic growth, and over time can limits whatever further improvements may be possible. Strong social development by itself does not lead to high economic growth. Poor economic growth may limit whatever social development Kerala have achieved and whatever future social development could be necessary T high social development can actually limit the further capacity for poverty eradication and growth. This is because the focus is on social development with out adequate attention to the issues of economic growth and there is the inability to use the resources effectively by paying sufficient attention to the requirements- inability because you are not paying attention to the requirements and possibilities of economic growth itself. There is no attention being paid to the possibilities created by the social development itself and the resources thus created. For example, Kerala is relatively slow in recognizing the potentials of a relatively highly educated labor force beyond sending them out as migrants. Another example may be really to recognize or to take advantage of the fact that Kerala is one of Indias major places of Ayurveda, which is becoming a major global industry in the context of biotechnology. So the inability to see Keralas own resources, potentials, possibilities as w ell as the risks of not paying attention to the situations comes from an approach which does not sufficiently pay attention to the problems of economic growth. Bibliografia (http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century insights from CDS gulf migration studies K. C. Zachariah S. Irudaya Rajan August 2005 working paper 374 p. 21). http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/98sep/kerala.htm S E P T E M B E R  Ã‚  1 9 9 8 Development and quality of life cant always be measured purely in economic terms. The Indian state of Kerala is a case in point Akash Kapur September 1998 Poor but Prosperous 324 pdf) (http://www.cds.edu/download_files/374.pdf Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the century insights from CDS gulf migration studies K. C. Zachariah S. Irudaya Rajan August 2005 working paper 374 p. 21) ) Keralas education system: from inclusion to exclusion, Economic and Political Weekly, 10 October 2009, VOL XLIV, NO 41, page 55 ) (Amartya Sen, 1994T 2.pdf http://www.csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/2.pdf Sakhi women resource centre, The situation of women in the state: the gender paradox. http://sakhikerala.org/Status%20of%20Women%20in%20Kerala%20.html Dynamics of Change in Keralas Education System:The Socio-economic and Political Dimensions K.K.George Parvathy Sunaina Working paper No.12 http://csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/12.pdf (K.R.Nayar, 1997 Nayar K.R, Housing Amenities and Health Improvement: SomeFindings, Economic and Political Weekly, May 31- June 6, ). KERALA THE LAND OF DEVELOPMENT PARADOXES K.K.George and N.Ajith Kumar Working Paper No.2 November 1997 http://www.csesindia.org/admin/modules/cms/docs/publication/2.pdf (INFRASTRUCTURE, GROWTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN KERALA Pillai N., Vijayamohanan Centre for Development Studies, Prasanth Nagar, Ulloor, Trivandrum, Kerala, India 05 p. 28 -31). KERALAS GULF CONNECTION Emigration, Remittances and their Macroeconomic Impact 1972-2000 K. P. Kannan K. S. Hari Working Paper No. 328

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in U

What are the Effects of Marriage and Religion on African Americans in Urban America? The last three decades have witnessed a â€Å"retreat from marriage† in the United States, marked by high rates of nonmarital births, lower rates of marriage, and divorce. Although a growing body of research on the retreat from marriage has focused on its social and economic causes, little attention has been paid to the role that cultural institutions play in furthering or resisting the retreat from marriage. This paper focuses on the role that religious institutions—and the cultural norms and behaviors they promote—play in resisting this retreat among new parents in urban America. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we find that urban mothers who attend church regularly are significantly more likely to be married at the time of birth compared to urban mothers who do not attend church frequently, and that urban mothers who have a nonmarital birth are significantly more likely to marry within a year of that birth if they attend church f requently. These religious effects are mediated in part by the relationship-related beliefs and behaviors promoted by churches. Church-going urban mothers express higher levels of normative commitment to the institution of marriage. They also are more likely to benefit from higher levels of supportive behavior (e.g., affection) from the father of their children and lower levels of conflict with the father over sexual fidelity. Thus, by fostering beliefs and behaviors that support matrimony, religious institutions help urban mothers make the transition to marriage in communities where marriage has become increasingly infrequent. Recently, there has been a huge decline in marriage... ...ay also help explain distinctive class, racial, and ethnic patterns of marriage. Works Cited Furstenberg, Frank. 2001. â€Å"The Fading Dream: Prospects for Marriage in the Inner City.† In Problem of the Century, edited by E. Anderson and D. Massey. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation Allison, Paul D. 1995. Survival Analysis using the SAS System: A Practical Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.. Anderson, Katherine, Don Browning, and Brian Boyer. 2002. Marriage: Just a Piece of Paper? Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Axinn, William G. and Arland Thornton. 2000. â€Å"The Transformation in the Meaning of Marriage.† In The Ties that Bind, edited by L. Waite. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Thornton, Arland, William G. Axinn, and Daniel H. Hill. 1992. â€Å"Reciprocal Effects of Religiosity, Cohabitation, and Marriage.† American Journal of Sociology 98:628-651.

Problem of Historical Distortion – Muhammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab

THE PROBLEM OF HISTORICAL DISTORTION: A Survey of Literature on Imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab as viewed through the Western slant of history By Kazi Zulkader Siddiqui The Problem of Historical DistortionOf the past fourteen centuries of the Islamic civilization, its thought, its institutions and the personalities who have contributed to its development and glory, stagnation and disintegration, the historical perspective painted by the Judaeo-Christian West has been markedly distinctive from the picture presented by the Muslim scholars, varying from outright hostile and distorted versions to the recent sympathetic (and sometimes empathetic) accounts.History is one of those branches of knowledge that can be used most effectively for the glorification and upliftment of one's own people at the expense of the traditions of others, leading eventually to a subversive imposition of one's own norms, values and way of life as the standard for others. Most, if not all of the people emanatin g from the Judaeo-Christian tradition who have penned their understanding of the Islamic civilization, have been prey to such underlying motives.This is not unique though since the subjective bias and assumptions of the historian in question are an integral part of the writing of history. What becomes remarkable in this case is the effective use of the historical perspective of other people for the exploitation of the same. This becomes manifest then, for example, in the notorious ‘Divide and Rule' policy of the post-renaissance British Empire. The Old Testament Hebraic heritage has a lot to offer in comprehending this attitude and mentality of the Western writer.The Old Testament (in the Bible) was written primarily to identify the ancestry and heritage of the Jews and thereby declare their superiority over all other nations. The other nations mentioned in the Old Testament are merely for the sake of justification of the crimes of the Children of Israel. Likewise, the modern Western writer is not concerned about the absolute and relative truths. He is more concerned about justifying or explaining away the phenomena of other civilizations. Through this he either hopes to dominate over the other civilizations, or to convert them to his own ways.We are well aware that our foregoing remarks are heavily loaded with our own assumptions; but there are certain assumptions, which are derived through the cognitive and perceptive processes using the facts of history as the starting point. Thus, in this case, the assumptions are elevated to the level of derived facts and axioms. To prove our point, we have chosen for this paper a survey of the literature in English produced by the West during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries on the famous and controversial imam Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1789).As a prominent figure in Islamic history, loved by many and hated by many others of the Muslims, he has managed to attract the attention of the Western colonia lists, missionaries, and historians who were neither, right from his own lifetime to the present. Far greater than the Imam himself is the impact of his followers – the Muwa idun or the so-called Wahhabis – on the Western literature about Islam. The schismatic element in the nature of the controversy between the followers of the Imam and other Muslims has held great interest for the very reasons we have outlined above.The analysis will become far more categorical as we proceed with the survey itself. Besides, this analysis can be made much more precise, accurate and to the point if one were to attempt a similar exercise on the survey of the Western literature about the followers of the Imam. In this paper we shall limit ourselves to the Imam only. To begin with, it would be appropriate to narrate the salient features of the Imam's life briefly. Page 2 The Problem of Historical Distortion Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab: A Brief Biography: Coming from a learned family, 1 M u? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab was born in 1115/1703 at `Uyaynah, a small town roughly 30 Km northwest of Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. His ancestors had been steeped in the ? anbali tradition, and so was young Mu? ammad's education. As a young man, he left `Uyaynah for further studies. His search for learning took him to Makkah, Madinah and Damascus. He acquired great admiration for Ibn Taymiyah (d. 728/1328) through the shaykh `Abd Allah ibn Ibrahim al-Najdi at Madinah. Madinah also offered him a chance to teach for quite some time. Subsequently, he continued this occupation at the Umayyad mosque of Damascus.His journeys took him east to Basrah as well, where, besides acquiring further knowledge of the traditional sciences, he got the chance of getting acquainted with Shi`i and Sufi circles, their ways and ideas. This period ascertained for him the formulation of a mission in his mind. According to the Lam` al-Shihab, 2 he stayed in Basrah for four years and then moved to Baghdad. There he married a wealthy lady and remained for five years. He next went to Hamadan and then to Isfahan in 1148/1736 to study philosophy and Sufism. His quest for knowledge led him to Cairo and Damascus as well.Upon the settlement of his father in Huraymilah near Riyadh in Saudi Arabia, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab joined him, and it was here that the Imam composed his first work on taw? id, and also gathered disciples. After the death of his father in 1153/1740, he left Huraymilah for `Uyaynah where he spent four years. During his stay there, the governor `Uthman ibn Bishr of the Banu Mu`ammar became his follower. This became a cause for consternation among the powerful Banu Khalid. His preaching against shirk (associating partners with Allah) that was practiced by the masses, and against their moral laxity shook the roots of the society.As a result, the Imam was forced to leave `Uyaynah and seek refuge in Dir`iyah (which is around 10-15 Km from `Uyaynah in the direction of Riyadh), where he found followers among the amir Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud's brothers and son. Eventually the Amir also supported him. The Amir and the Imam took a bay`ah (an oath of mutual loyalty), â€Å"to strive, by force if necessary, to make the kingdom of God's word prevail†. 3 This was the beginning of the religio-political reality that was to engulf the whole of Najd and its neighbouring territories during the decades to come, first under the amir Mu? mmad ibn Sa`ud (d. 1178/1765), then under his son `Abd al-`Aziz (d. 1218/1803) and his grandson Sa`ud (d. 1229/1814). We leave the story of the Al Sa`ud for other historians to narrate, and return to the man who called for the return to taw? id (God's unity) and a true practice of Islam. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab continued his role as teacher in the mosque of Dir`iyah, as political counselor of the Amir, and as a preacher writing theological works and extending his da`wah to the neighbouring areas until his death in 1204/1789. 4 Bearing this brief picture of the Imam in mind, we ow turn to his Western biographers and their accounts. â€Å"His grandfather Sulayman b. Mu? ammad had been mufti of the Nadjd. His father `Abd al-Wahhab was kadi at `Uyayna during the emirate of `Abd Allah b. Mu? ammad b. Mu`ammar; he taught ? adith and fikh in the mosques of the town and left several works of ? anbali inspiration, which in part survive†. Laoust, EI2, III:677, col. 2. 2 Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 3 Laoust, EI2, III:678, col. 2. Most of the facts have been taken from this same source. Most historians give the year of death as 1206/1792. See Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, â€Å"A Diplomat's Report on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), p. 38, for the argument in favour of 1204/1789 as the correct date. Page 3 1 The Problem of Historical Distortion WESTERN ACCOUNTS ABOUT THE IM M: M. Carsten Niebuhr (1733-1815): The first European to mention the Imam in his writings was M. Carsten Niebuhr who visited the peninsula in 1761-1764, that is within four years of the bay`ah taken between the Imam and ibn Sa`ud. He published his reports in German in 1772 and 1778.An abridged English version of his writings appeared first in 1792 entitled Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East. 5 Niebuhr and his companions had embarked upon an ecclesiastical mission to gather some information about this ancient land of Arabia, which had been the cradle of Christianity just as it had been for Judaism and Islam. Many people have noted the false and misleading remarks of Niebuhr with regards to the Imam. In the drama depicted by Niebuhr, there are two important characters in the founding of â€Å"the New Religion of a Part of Nedsjed†, 6 namely one â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb† and his son â€Å"Mahomet†. His description of ibn `Abd al-Wahhab's youth seems to tally with the facts of the Imam's life. Now this â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, having founded his religion, converts several Schiechs (i. e. shaykhs) to his faith, and virtually becomes their ruler. He reduces a great part of â€Å"El Ared†, thus seemingly also performing the role of ibn Sa`ud. After the father's death, the son â€Å"Mahomet† takes over the small empire built by his father, sustaining â€Å"the supreme ecclesiastical character in El Ared†. Among his beliefs cited are that â€Å"he considered Mahomet, Jesus Christ, Moses, and many others, respected by the Sunnites in the character of prophets, as merely great men, whose history might be read with improvement; denying that any book had ever been written by divine inspiration, or brought down from the heaven by the angel Gabriel. † 9 Against the beliefs of â€Å"Abd ul Wahheb†, he contrasts the Sunnites as a â€Å"superstitious sect† whose opinions are false, depending on â€Å"their own whimsies† to explain the â€Å" Alcoran†, acknowledging saints â€Å"to whom many absurd miracles are ascribed†, etc. 0 Finally, he concludes that ‘The new religion of Abd ul Wahheb deserves therefore to be regarded as a reformation of Mahometism, reducing it back to its original simplicity†. 11 The inaccuracies of Niebuhr's reporting continued in the Western understanding for many decades as we shall see. Sir Harford Jones Brydges: Far more accurate in his reporting was the civil servant of the colonialist British, Sir Harford Jones Brydges, who sent his first report on the Wahhabis from Baghdad to the British Foreign Office in C. M. Niebuhr, Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. nto English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison & Son, 1792. Cf. also Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 33 and a review of Niebuhr's life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 by V. B. Mehta. 6 Niebuhr, II:130. Note that Nedsjed is Najd. 7 Ibid. , II:131-3. 8 Ibid. , II :133. 9 Ibid. , II:134. 10 Ibid. , II:135. 11 Ibid. , II:135. Page 4 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion 1799, that is within a decade of the death of the Imam. 12 The weakest part of his report is the following anecdote: â€Å"Shaik Ibn Mahamer 13 proud of possessing this new Sectuary gave Moolah Mohammed 14 his own Sister inMarriage and Moolah Mohammed sometime after, under pretense, that his Brother in Law Mahamer perverted Justice and oppressed the Tribe, murdered him with his own hands in the Mosque as he was at prayers meaning thereby, as he declared, to give to the People of Ayenah 15 a proof that his love for Justice was so great, that neither the obligations which he had to, nor alliance he had with Shaik Mahamer could withhold him from punishing even in him that he conceived to be a deviation from it. The People of Ayenah however appear to have had too much good Sense, to esteem as meritorious, so horrible a Transaction, and they obliged Moolah Mohammed, to abandon Aye nah, and he fled to Dereah 16 where he found an Asylum and Protector in Shaik Ibn Soud, the Governor of that place, who also embraced his Doctrines†. 17 Historically we know that `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar died a natural death after the Imam had left for Dir`iyah, and that his expulsion from `Uyaynah was due to the pressures from various parts of that area against his teachings.Other than this error, Brydges' report to his masters in London faithfully depicted the doctrines taught by the Imam. He says, â€Å"The Religion they possess is Mohammedan according to the literal meaning of the Koran, following the Interpretations of Hambelly†. 18 Thirty-five years later, in 1834, Sir Harford Jones Brydges produced a far greater authoritative account of the Muwa idun in his A Brief History of the Wahauby. 19 We shall return to this document after looking at other developments during these thirty-five years. e Sacy: In 1805, we find the Frenchman de Sacy writing in his paper Observati ons sur les Wahhabites that the Muwa idun are â€Å"enemies of Islam†. He considered them to be an offshoot of the Qarmatians. 20 Rousseau: Four years later in 1809, another Frenchman by the name of Rousseau produced two short treatises 21 in which â€Å"it was positively asserted, that the Wahabys have a new religion, and that Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , pp. 33-46. i. e. `Uthman ibn Mu`ammar, the governor of `Uyaynah. 14 i. e. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab 15 i. e. `Uyaynah. 16 i. e.Dir`iyah, the first Saudi capital in the eighteenth century. It is now a ruin, lying on the outskirts of present day Riyadh 17 Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, op. cit. , p. 41. 18 Ibid. , p. 42. By â€Å"Hambelly† he means the ? anbali School of Fiqh. 19 Harford Jones Brydges, An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty's Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. 20 M. A. Bari, â€Å"The early Wahha bis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th International Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967.It may be recalled here that the Qarmatians were a 9th – 12th century Isma`ili sect that sprang up in southern `Iraq and al-Hasa'. 21 J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d'une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives l'histoire et la litterature de l'Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. Idem. , â€Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191-198. 13 12 Page 5 The Problem of Historical Distortion although they acknowledge the Koran, yet they have entirely abolished the pilgrimage to Mekka†. 2 He claimed to derive part of his information from â€Å"le Chapelain de Saoud†. 23 Burckhardt, Brydges, 24 and other later Western writers reprimanded Rousseau for his obvious misinformation, the indignation arising over his claim to an authentic source of information. Corancez: The following year, i. e. in 1810, Corancez published his work in French. 25 Nashshabah says that after Burckhardt, â€Å"the next best Western account of the early history of the Wahhabis is Corancez's Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu'a la fin de 1809.Corancez, who was the French consul in Aleppo from 1800 to 1808, carefully checked the information he had been able to gather, and his informants were often first-hand observers; but his account of the life of the founder of the Wahhabi movement is inadequate. He ascribes Wahhabi expansion solely to the weakness and misrule of the Ottomans (whose authority in most of Arabia was at times merely nominal) and ignores the fervour stirred up by (ibn) `Abd al-Wahhab which, combined with the leadership of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud, must surely have been the main reason for their astonishing victories†. 6 Vincenzo Maurizi: During the following years, we find the writ ings of another Niebuhrian, 27 an Italian by the name of Vincenzo Maurizi alias Shaik Mansur. He amused his European audience with his History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat in 1819, which also devoted a considerable section to the Muwa idun. Maurizi, in his zeal to discredit the movement, overstepped even the limits of Niebuhr and painted a completely erroneous picture. To give a full flavour of his deliberate misreporting, we quote part of his narrative below. â€Å"About the middle of the last century (i. e. ighteenth century), a man named Abdulwahab, or Abdulvaab, a native of Hellah, or Ellaa, 28 on the banks of the Euphrates, pretended to have a vision, in which a flame appeared to issue from his body and burn to ashes all the neighbouring country; he confided the extraordinary circumstances which had befallen him to a Mullah, or Mulla, and the interpreter of the will of heaven declared that this sign portended the birth of a son, who should become the founder of a new religio n, and perform extraordinary actions. Soon afterwards the wife of Abdulvaab really became pregnant, and bore him a son, who was named Maam? . 29 [footnote in the text reads: This happened about the year 1757. ]. â€Å"The tribe of Neshdee, or Nescede, 30 to which the family belonged, soon imbibed the doctrines which appeared to be sanctioned by divine authority, and Abdulvaab, as general of J. L. Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley, 1831, p. II:103. 23 Ibid. , p. 103. 24 cf. ibid. , and Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 109,112. 25 L. A. O. de Corancez, Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu' la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. 26 Hisham A.Nashshabah, Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955. Unpublished M. A. thesis. p. 11. 27 About Niebuhr, Maurizi remarks â€Å"where the accurate and indefatigable Niebuhr could aff ord me any assistance, I have not hesitated to avail myself of it, and on the other hand I have occasionally remarked any alterations which have taken place since his days†. 17th page of his â€Å"Preface† to the History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819. 28 He probably means al-? illah in `Iraq. 29 i. e. Muhammad 30 i. e.Najdi. Page 6 22 The Problem of Historical Distortion an army and prophet of a rising sect, had an opportunity of spreading his political power, and the opinions of the new faith, which he considered himself commissioned to promulgate; while his son accompanied him, and was shown to all as the precious pledge of Almighty approbation towards the Vaabi religion. After Abdulvaabs death Maam? t succeeded in his command, but being blind, was obliged to employ, as his deputy, in all affairs of state except those relating to religion, a person named Abdullazis, 31 an adopted brother of his father's. This minister followed up the victories of the deceased p rophet with the greatest facility. As the first barriers of opposition had been already overthrown, it would be very difficult, and perhaps useless to name all the Seek 32 who resisted in arms the aggrandisement of the Vaabi, or the particular periods of their several conquests; but at the death of the chief last mentioned, 33 almost all the interior of the Arabian peninsula acknowledged their political and religious sway.Abdullazis succeeded to the supreme authority, and greatly extended the limits of their power, having sacked Mecca and Medina and destroyed the tomb of Mahomet, whom he declared to be a deceiver, and not a messenger of heaven; he also penetrated to the gates of Aleppo and Baghdad, massacred a caravan of Persian pilgrims on their route to visit the burial place of Alle, or Eli, 34 at Ellaa, 35 and plundered that depository of the accumulated wealth of ages†. 36 The historical errors are far too many to comment on in detail; but we shall make observations on so me salient distortions.The dichotomy between `Abd al-Wahhab and Mu? ammad ibn `Abd alWahhab is carried on from Niebuhr, but Maurizi goes a step further in proclaiming `Abd al-Wahhab to be a prophet, and giving Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab almost the position of a demi-god. Besides, he transfers the hometown of the family to al-? illah in `Iraq and moves the year of birth of Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab to 1757, the year when he contracted the bay`ah with ibn Sa`ud. The fallacy of a tribe called Najdi, of the existence of `Ali's tomb at al-? illah, of `Abd al-`Aziz being the adopted brother of the Imam's father, etc. eed hardly be commented upon. But the interesting development that must be noted is the so-called declaration by `Abd al-`Aziz of the Prophet Mu? ammad (p) being an impostor. Maurizi elaborates on this and other supposed beliefs of the â€Å"Vaabi† by quoting an answer which he claims to have been given to him by an envoy of Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz. It reads: â₠¬Å"We do not differ from other Musaleems, or Muselims (Musselmen) 37 except in thinking that Mahomet arrogated to himself too much authority; and, that the Koran was sent to the earth by the hands of angels, nd not of that man, who has even dared to falsify many of its doctrines; we also consider that the prophets, and especially Maamet iben Abdulvaab were beings like ourselves; and, therefore, not worthy of being addressed in prayer, although deserving of admiration and imitation for their piety and moral conduct†¦ † 38 Obviously, Maurizi could not have known more than a few words or phrases in Arabic, or else he would have rendered the envoy's answer truthfully. Instead, he has imposed hearsay and his own 31 32 Presumably `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. . e. shaykhs. 33 i. e. Maamet, the son of Abdulva b. 34 i. e. `Ali ibn Abi Talib. 35 i. e. al-? illah in `Iraq. 36 Maurizi, , op. cit. , pp. 36-38. 37 i. e. Muslims. 38 Maurizi, op. cit. , p. 40. Page 7 The Proble m of Historical Distortion assumptions into the mouth of the envoy. His lack of knowledge of Arabic is reflected also in the fact that he misconstrues `Abd Allah ibn Sa`ud, the Sa`udi amir after Sa`ud ibn `Abd al-`Aziz as â€Å"Abdullahazis† (`Abd al-`Aziz). Similarly, in the last passage cited, the envoy must have said â€Å"the prophets, and especially Mu? mmad ibn `Abd Allah were beings like ourselves †¦ † which Maurizi took to mean Maamet iben Abdulvaab. Maurizi's account even disgraces fiction. J. L. Burckhardt: John Lewis Burckhardt was the first to bring a balanced view of the movement to the European audience. The epistle of Brydges in 1799 was not a public document. Thus Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys published in 1831 was a turning point in the Western understanding of the Imam and his followers. This work goes into fair amount of detail about the movement.Burckhardt dispelled many of the misunderstandings that had been current in the Wes t as a result of the earlier writings. The very first thing he set out to correct was that: â€Å"The doctrines of Abd el Wahab were not those of a new religion; his efforts were directed only to reform abuses in the followers of Islam, and to disseminate the pure faith among Bedouins; who although Muselmans, were equally ignorant of religion, as indifferent about all the duties which it prescribed†. 39 Comparing the Muwa idun to the Ottoman Turks, he says: â€Å"Not a single new precept was to be found in the Wahaby ode. Abd el Wahab took as his sole guide the Koran and the Sunne (or the laws formed upon the traditions of Mohammed); and the only difference between this sect and the orthodox Turks, however improperly so termed, is, that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which the others neglect, or have ceased altogether to observe. To describe, therefore, the Wahaby religion, would be to recapitulate the Muselman faith; and to show in what points this sect differs fr om the Turks, would be to give a list of all the abuses of which the latter are guilty†. 0 One can quote Burckhardt at length to show his positive attitude which led him to a fairly objective analysis of the creed and practice of the Muwa idun, and the reasons why Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab â€Å"was misunderstood both by his friends and his enemies†. 41 The former took offense at his seeming attacks on the Prophet (p) and the latter saw a political threat in his preaching; thus leading to an intentional distortion of the facts. Despite this objectivity in Burckhardt, one cannot but comment on the Western slant of his perception.The usage of words often has a psychological effect on the reader. For instance, Burckhardt, writing about the Imam says that â€Å"being convinced by what he observed during his (b. `Abd al-Wahhab's) travels, that the primitive (emphasis ours) faith of Islam, or Mohammedanism, had become totally corrupted and obscured by abuses,†¦ †Å". 42 The value judgment involved in his use of the word â€Å"primitive† is apparent. The Western notion that the progression of thought and ideas essentially leads to the advancement of civilization is a result of their philosophical heritage.The Islamic notion, that the absolute is derived solely through the process of divine revelation in history and not through cognitive, intuitive or perceptive processes which are bound by the limitations of the human mind, stands markedly in contradistinction to the Western assumptions. Thus, while the 39 40 Burckhardt, op. cit. , II:99. Ibid. , II:112 41 Ibid. , II:99. 42 Ibid. , II:96. Page 8 The Problem of Historical Distortion Muslim (including Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab) would view the life of theProphet as a supreme achievement in the history of man, the Western thinker would regard it as a ‘primitive' stage in the life of man. However, it is remarkable that if one is to compare Burckhardt with the later Orientalists, he was far ahead of his own time in this respect. His value judgements are very limited. Hitti, a century later, echoes the same words that â€Å"he (b. `Abd al-Wahhab) himself determined to purge it (Islam) and restore it to its primitive strictness†. 43 Hitti goes further though in regarding the bay`ah of 1757 as â€Å"another case of marriage between religion and the sword†. 4 The subtle intrusion of value judgements are scattered profusely throughout the writings even of the socalled ‘sympathetic' Western Orientalists like Nicholson, 45 Wilfrid Cantwell Smith (d. 2000), 46 von Grunebaum (1909-1972), 47 and H. A. R. Gibb (d. 1971) 48 not to speak of the others. Andrew Crichton: The next stage in the history of the Western biographies of the Imam was set by Andrew Crichton with his publication of History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern in 1833. This is the first time that we see a Western writer composing a secondary work on the Muwa dun based solely on other Weste rn writings. Having noted Burckhardt's caution against the misconceptions floating around, Crichton relied primarily on Burckhardt, Corancez and Mengin in particular. 49 Since he has nothing original to offer, we turn to his usage of some of the material at hand. For example, after outlining the beliefs and practices of the Muwa idun, he states â€Å"They did not, however, so far outstrip themselves of all superstition as to abolish the ceremonies of ablution and the Meccan pilgrimage, or even those of kissing the black stone and throwing stones at the devil†. 0 To start with, this reveals the author's ignorance about Islam, it's beliefs, practices and rituals. Secondly, it is surprising that the author cannot even conceive of non-Christian rituals that reflect and lead to cleanliness, unity of man, and submission and commitment to God. By calling these rituals â€Å"superstition†, the author has obviously passed a normative judgment that is reflective of the Judaeo-Ch ristian tradition. Sir Harford Jones Brydges re-visited: Chronologically, this brings us once again to Sir Harford Jones Brydges.This worthy civil servant of the colonialist British Empire had little that was new to add to the known facts of the Imam's life as described by Burckhardt. He published his Brief History of the Wahauby, in 1834 after perusal of Burckhardt's work. The only point on which the two disagreed was whether Mu? ammad ibn alWahhab was the father-in-law or the son-in-law of Mu? ammad ibn Sa`ud. Regardless of this dispute, what Brydges has to offer as an interpretation of this relationship between the two is as follows: P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972, p. 40. Ibid. 45 R. A. Nicholson, Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969, p. 466. 46 W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957, pp. 48-51. 47 G. von Grunebaum, â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essay s in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 185-236. 48 H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972, pp. 26-32. 49 Andrew Crichton, History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 1833, p. II:190.See footnote. 50 Ibid. , II:290. 44 43 Page 9 The Problem of Historical Distortion â€Å"†¦ and that in consequence of this connexion, though Abdulwahaub remained the book, Mahommed Ibn Saoud became the sword of the sect†. 51 This is the prelude to what we have been hearing from Orientalists like Hitti and others mentioned earlier. The only difference is that while Brydges was a part of the colonialist establishment and had a political axe to grind, the Orientalists are a part of the neo-colonialist imperialism that breeds Orientalist research. In other respects, i. . those that cover other aspects of the history of the Muwa idun, their administration, etc. , Brydges' book complements the w ork of Burckhardt. W. G. Palgrave: Moving beyond the middle of the nineteenth century, we come to William Gifford Palgrave, a servant of the British crown in India, steeped in the Christian tradition. By his time, the facts of the movement were well known; it was now the time for the growth of interpretation of these facts. Palgrave published two works, namely Eastern and Central Arabia (1866) and Essays on Eastern Questions (1872).Wahhabism had by this time become a great threat to the British Empire in India and elsewhere, and the crown was out to discredit the movement not only in the British public eye, but also among the Muslims residing in the British colonies. The latter purpose was not difficult to achieve due to the existing propaganda against the Muwa idun by the Ottoman Turks. Thus, in true service of British colonialism and displaying his loyalty to the missionary cause, Palgrave tried to paint the movement as a reaction to the pressure of the Christian West.He says â₠¬Å"The great reactionary movement, the ‘Revival', originated where scarce a spark of life had been left, by the too-famous ‘Abd-el-Wahhab, in the land of Nejd, has gradually but surely extended itself over the entire surface and through all the length and depth of Islam; while the ever increasing pressures of the Christian, or, at least, non-Mahometan, West, has intensified the ‘fanatical' tendency, even where it has modified its special direction.For ‘Islam' is a political not less than a religious whole;†¦ † 52 This was a rejoinder to the alarm sounded by W. W. Hunter (who was in Her Majesty's Bengal Civil Service) in his book The Indian Musalmans. 53 By this time, the British had already successfully faced Sayyid A? mad Shahid (d. 1831), Titu Mir and the War of 1857. With these major setbacks, a wave of strong ‘Wahhabi' feelings had swept the Muslims of Bengal and Northern India, hoping to regain their lost position.Therefore, it was essen tial for the British cause to subvert this obvious threat. Apart from the political motivations for his analysis, his Christian missionary zeal and hatred for Islam drove Palgrave to write as follows: â€Å"The Wahhabee reformer formed the design of putting back the hour-hand of Islam to its starting-point; and so far he did well, for that hand was from the first meant to be fixed. Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain.Sterile like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme Original in all that constitutes true life – for life is love, participation, and progress, and of these the Coranic Deity has none – it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all developement. To borrow the forcible words of Lord Houghton, the 51 52 Brydges, The Wahauby, p. 107. W. G. Palgrave, Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan & Co. , 1872, p. 115. 53 W. W. Hunter, The Indian Musalmans, 1871. Page 10 The Problem of Historical Distortion wri tten book† is there the â€Å"dead man's hand†, stiff and motionless; whatever savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy and defection. â€Å"But Christianity with its living and loving God, Begetter and Begotten, Spirit and Movement, nay more, a Creator made creature, the Maker and the made existing in One, a Divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted gradation and degree from the most intimate union far off to the faintest irradiation, though all that It has made for love and governs in love;†¦ † 54 Mu? mmad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab is the example for him par excellence of the true image of Islam, stagnant against a dynamic Christianity, backward looking against the advancing Christianity, lifeless against the living Christianity, and with a Sterile God against a living and loving Christian God who begets his only begotten Son becoming the Creator and creature, the Maker and the made all in One. Palgrave combined the missionary and the colonia list mentality in a perfect blend that was to reflect in the Orientalist attitude during the century to follow. He becomes the precursor to the likes of Samuel Zwemer, 55 E. Calverley, C. M.Doughty (1843-1926), 56 T. E. Lawrence (1888-1935), 57 and others. We end our analysis with Palgrave. Doubtless, the approach of the Orientalist has improved vastly during this century, as we see in the writings of George Rentz, for example. 58 However, the Orientalists of the latter portion of the nineteenth century, and until recently, those of the twentieth century have faithfully followed the tradition of the likes of Palgrave. CONCLUSION: For the sake of betterment and advancement of the civilization of man, we go back to our opening remarks and question the Western Judaeo-Christian approach towards the civilizations of the East.Rejecting the self-centeredness and particularity practiced by the Judaeo-Christian West, and in order to approximate the Islamic universality, we must shed our feat hers and appreciate the traditions and civilizations of others within their own framework and assumptions. The plurality of this small world, shrunk by the advance of technology, necessitates a renunciation of selfishness and oppression of the weak, at least in intellectual exercises. In the present context, that is of our approach towards history, we are now bound to accept the facts as such and interpret them for the betterment of mankind.It is obvious that personal biases cannot be eliminated in their totality. The basic assumptions must remain. Regardless, this should not lead us to a distortion of facts. Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab served an important purpose to a significant population of mankind, and has also caused grievance to many. In light of this we cannot justify either veneration or denunciation of this man, who devoted his life for a simple cause. W. G. Palgrave, Narrative of a Year's Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan & Co. , 1866, p. I:372. 5 Samuel M. Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906. 56 Charles Montagu Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. 57 T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Idem. , Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 58 George Rentz, Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movement in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Cf. also Idem. , â€Å"Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. y Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66. And Idem. , â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284. Page 11 54 The Problem of Historical Distortion Instead, his contribution to the development of civilization must be appreciated in its true perspective. The most important c onclusion is the recognition of the distortion of facts, deliberate or otherwise, by the Western colonialists, their functionaries, their missionaries, and the Orientalists who were none of these.Their aims were multifarious. While the colonialists and their functionaries strove to maintain their political supremacy and to keep the Muslim population subdued within the colonies, the missionaries tried their utmost to distort Islam to the extent possible hoping to gain converts. It was often that the aims of the colonialists and the missionaries though seemingly different were in fact the same. Hence, they worked hand in glove throughout and distorted the facts of history to make their own ends meet. Page 12 The Problem of Historical DistortionBIBLIOGRAPHY Abu Hakima, Ahmad A. , ed. , Lam` al-Shihab fi ta’rikh Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab, Beirut, 1967 M. A. Bari, Harford Jones Brydges, â€Å"The early Wahhabis, some contemporary assessments†. Proceedings of the 27th Int ernational Congress of Orientalists: Ann Arbor, Mich. , 1967. An Account of the Transactions of His Majesty's Mission to the Court of Persia in the years 1807-11, to which is appended A Brief History of the Wahauby: London, James Bohn, 1834. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, vol. 2: London, Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley, 1831, p.II:103. Histoire des Wahhabis, depuis leur origine jusqu'a la fin de 1809, Paris, Grapelet, 1810. History of Arabia: Ancient and Modern, vol. 2: Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd, 1833 Travels in Arabia Deserta: London, N. Y. , 1906. An abridged version of this work was also published under the title Wanderings In Arabia, London, Duckworth, 1908, 1926 Modern Trends in Islam, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1947, 1972 â€Å"Attempts at Self-Interpretation in Contemporary Islam†, Islam: Essays in the nature and growth of a cultural tradition, London, 1955, pp. 85-236 History of the Arabs: Edinburgh, 1939, 1972 The Indian Musalmans, 1871 â€Å"A Diplomat's R eport on Wahhabism of Arabia†, Islamic Studies 7 (1968), Encyclopedia of Islam, Second Edition, III:677, col. 2. Seven Pillars of Wisdom: London, Jonathan Cape, 1926, 1935, 1940 Revolt in the Desert: N. Y. , George H. Doran Co. , 1927 History of Seyd Said, Sultan of Muscat, 1819 A review of Niebuhr's life in Islamic Culture 7 (1933), pp. 502-505 Islam and Nationalism in the Arab World: A Selected and Annotated Bibliography: Montreal, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, 1955.Unpublished M. A. thesis. Literary History of the Arabs, Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1907, 1969 Travels Through Arabia and Other Countries in the East, trans. into English by Robert Heron, vol. 2, Edinburgh, R. Morrison & Son, 1792. Essays on Eastern Questions: London, MacMillan & Co. , 1872 Narrative of a Year's Journey Through Eastern and Central Arabia (1862-63), 2 Vols. : London, MacMillan & Co. , 1866 Mu? ammad ibn `Abd al-Wahhab and the Unitarian Movement in Arabia, Ph. D. Thesis, M cGill University, Montreal, Canada. â€Å"Wahhabism and SaudiArabia† in The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics, ed. by Derek Hopwood: London, George Allen Unwin, 1972, pp. 54-66 â€Å"The Wahhabis† in Religion in the Middle East ed. by A. J. Arberry: Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 270- 284 Descriptions du pashalic de Baghdad suivie d'une notice historique sur les Wahabis, et de quelques autres pieces relatives a l'histoire et a la litterature de l'Orient, Paris, Trouttel et Wurtz, 1809, pp. 125-182. J. L. Burckhardt, L. A. O. de Corancez, Andrew Crichton, Charles Montagu Doughty, H. A. R. Gibb, G. von Grunebaum, P. K.Hitti, W. W. Hunter, Mu`inuddin A? mad Khan, Henri Laoust, T. E. Lawrence, Idem. , Vincenzo Maurizi, V. B. Mehta, Hisham A. Nashshabah, R. A. Nicholson, C. M. Niebuhr, W. G. Palgrave, W. G. Palgrave, George Rentz, Idem. , Idem. , J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Page 13 The Problem of Historical Distortion Idem. , W. C. Smith, Samuel M. Zwemer, â₠¬Å"Notice sur la secte des Wahabis†, Fundgruben des Orients, Vol. I, Wien, 1809, pp. 191198. Islam in Modern History: N. Y. , Mentor, 1957 Arabia the Cradle of Islam and The Mohammedan World of Today: N. Y. , Fleming H. Revell Co. , 1906 Page 14

Adapting Technology to Global Warming Professor Ramos Blog

Adapting Technology to Global Warming Most common misconception regarding global warming and climate change is the standardized between these two ideas. Global warming refers to the long-term increasing trend in the average global temperature. Climate change on the other hand is the effect of various phenomena such as global warming to the global climate. It is better visualized as the â€Å"side effects† of warming like heavier typhoons and storms, melting of glaciers, and more and frequent droughts. It can be said that global warming is a result of human-caused climate change. Red bars show global average (land and sea) temperatures above the long-term average, and blue bars indicate temperatures below the long-term average. The black line shows the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. Global warming is just a preliminary concern to a bigger problem. With various climate-change phenomenon recently occurring, mitigating solutions should be implemented, another way to proceed is also by adapting the technology to utilize these various changes. Most famous propaganda that tackles solutions to global warming is the Green New Deal (GND). GND is a proposal that contains a list of ideas and eco-supporting platforms that plans to reform the status of US government in terms so sustainability. According to Vinjamuri, this agenda became a widespread concern for most 2020 contenders for election. Their varying stand regarding this proposal is being evaluated by the community. GND has just recently being revived by Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortex of Bronx. Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez addresses the Green New Deal in a crowd at the annual Womens March on 19 January 2019. The proposal described in GND has categorized certain issues and plausible actions toward them. This project was estimated to cost around $1 trillion. As discussed in the GND proposal, suggested innovations can be correlated to renewable energy, smart grid, energy efficiency, transportation, low-tech solutions, cows and climate change, guaranteed jobs, labor laws, public ownership, providing higher education, trade unions, trade deals, indigenous people, health care, housing, security, clean air and water, and healthy food and nature (Sierra Club). One of the main goals of this project is to have a 100 percent clean, renewable, and no-emission energy sources for power supply in the United States in a span of 10 years. This ideology is being questioned if this would be even possible. A lot of investments were already focused on energy industries spending hundreds of billions. The one that GND lacks is the scale comparison with this trading. Along with this topic is the building of energy efficient constructions and smart which purpose is to have affordable electricity consumption. Making these kind of buildings ang innovating them to be green will surely cost a fortune. In 2009, it was estimated that retrofitting a building would cost $4.5 billion while for a public project it would cost $3 billion. With surplus in development plans, one aspect that will also be affected is the job recruitment. This entails a different wage for a family having a certain number of household. For example, a family with one adult will be paid $11.41 while having two adults will have $18.44. And if one adult is working, the wage would be $26.39. With the guaranteed job secured, health care is one of the priorities. The green new deal is an â€Å"imaginative project†. Even though its cause so good and also for the betterment of the future, it will definitely consume a lot of wealth. It was estimated by Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortex, that taxes in the United Sates should go as high as 70 percent to be able to sustain the budget for this proposal. IN the current situation, the top tax rate was 37 percent which was the result of Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Tax amounting to almost double of the current state would be a stone-in-the-pocket for the citizens. This concept is highly undoable and considering that the issues discussed in GND are not the only ones tackled by the government. Proper allotment of budget should be observed to have equal observance on problems. However, to have an improvement regarding our actions towards sustainability and climate change, ones community should impose heavy rules and dedicate a huge amount of money in order to achieve it. A way to obtain these proposed agenda is to utilize the naturally occurring catalyst to global warming, the sun. Most projects or technology today are focusing on acquiring renewable energy and converting them to our daily need in terms of powering our homes and easing up the activities in work. Some people are not yet aware of the existence of global warming and its effects. It is and will greatly affect or disturb the balance of the ecosystems. Due to the detrimental effects of this phenomena, solutions should be devised. According to Shahzad, alternate energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass should be pursued. Finding and using renewable sources of energy is an alternate solution to the ever-increasing global warming effects. Investing in energy efficiency and renewable energy creates smart business sense in United States because it makes new jobs in a wide range of industries, foster innovation and gives competitive edge in global market. Clean technology is a successful one having a global revenue of $900 billion in 2007 and venture capital investment of $8.5 billion in 2008. Nanosolar and Solyndra which manufactures thin-film solar cells are among the top American Companies which business have attracted a huge money (Union of Concerned Scientists). Chinese business has recently expanding their manufacturing of wind turbines and solar cells due to policies that require use of energy efficient technology and renewable energy. They are expecting to generate 155 percent of its electricity from renewable resources by 2020. According to Hanley, renewable energy is being highly utilized for electricity providing the trend in the figure below. By adopting strong policies to promote this kind of clean technology, one can deliver economic dividends in the form of energy savings, new jobs, growing industries, and further opportunities for innovation. Another opportunity is with utilizing solar energy into farming. Solar energy can cut the expenses for farm’s electricity and heating. Solar heat collectors can be used for drying of crops and warming up homes, livestock buildings, and greenhouses. Solar water heaters provide hot water cleaning pens and dairy operations. Photovoltaics can power farm operations, especially pumping of water from groundwater and lightings. An example of growth in the application of solar photovoltaics in Asia and Africa is shown below (Hanley). Global Warming has always existed and still continuous to implement dangerous threats to the society. We should be able to incorporate our existing technology to be able to adopt to these changes in the environment. Utilizing our renewable resources will sure lessen the detrimental effects but that alone will completely eradicate the problem. We should always play smart in tackling these kinds of situations. If we would not be able to provide fast and concrete solution, we must try to use in our advantage the effects of the global warming such as use of the sun. Works Cited Hanley, Steve. Solar Leads The Way As Renewables Grow Faster Than Expected | CleanTechnica. 2017, https://cleantechnica.com/2017/10/05/solar-leads-way-renewables-grow-faster-expected/. Sierra Club. What Is a Green New Deal? 2019, https://www.sierraclub.org/trade/what-green-new-deal. The Future of US Climate Politics | Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/future-us-climate-politics?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIye3R99jb4gIVVwQqCh3b9wayEAAYASAAEgI-RfD_BwE. Accessed 9 June 2019. Shahzad, Umair. Global Warming: Causes, Effects and Solutions.2015, https://www. researchgate .net/publication/316691239_Global_Warming_Causes_Effects_and_Solutions Union of Concerned Scientists. Clean Technology.2010, https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default /files/legacy/assets/documents/global_warming/ucs-fact-Clean-Tech-w-endnotes-2-10b.pdf Vanjamuri, L. The Future of US Climate Politics | Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/expert/comment/future-us-climate-politics?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIye3R99jb4gIVVwQqCh3b9wayEAAYASAAEgI-RfD_BwE. Accessed 9 June 2019.